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Yuri Kochiyama - Wikipedia

Yuri Kochiyama - Wikipedia

Yuri Kochiyama

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"Kochiyama" redirects here. For the Japanese person in Edo period, see Kōchiyama Sōshun.
The native form of this personal name is Kōchiyama Yuri. This article uses Western name order when mentioning individuals.
Yuri Kochiyama
Kochiyama at Central Park anti-war demonstration c. 1968
Born
Mary Yuriko Nakahara

May 19, 1921
San Pedro, California, U.S.
DiedJune 1, 2014 (aged 93)
Berkeley, California, U.S.
EducationCompton College
OccupationCivil rights activist
Spouse
Bill Kochiyama
​
​
(m. 1946; died 1993)​
Children6

Yuri Kochiyama (河内山 百合子 (ユリ・コウチヤマ), Kōchiyama Yuriko; born Mary Yuriko Nakahara; May 19, 1921 – June 1, 2014) was an American civil rights activist born in San Pedro, California. She was interned at the Jerome War Relocation Center in Arkansas during World War II, an experience that influenced her views on racism in the United States. While interned, she helped run a letter-writing campaign to Nisei (transl. 'second-generation') soldiers, wrote for the Jerome camp newspaper, and volunteered with the United Service Organizations (USO).

After the end of the war, Kochiyama moved to New York and eventually to Harlem, where she became involved in the civil rights movement. At first working with the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), Kochiyama's friendship with civil rights leader Malcolm X led her to affiliate with Black nationalist organizations such as the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU), the Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM), and the Republic of New Afrika (RNA).

Kochiyama advocated for political prisoners, including imprisoned members of the civil rights movement, and helped to found the National Committee to Defend Political Prisoners (NCDPP)[a] in the early 1970s. She also supported the Puerto Rican independence movement. Kochiyama played an influential role in the Asian American movement and was a member of the organization Asian Americans for Action (AAA). In the 1980s, she participated in the redress movement for Japanese Americans interned during World War II, resulting in the signing of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which offered reparations to internment survivors.

Kochiyama is noted for her revolutionary nationalist views and her opposition to imperialism. She drew controversy in 2003 by praising Osama bin Laden, comparing him to Malcolm, Che Guevara, Patrice Lumumba, and Fidel Castro. She has also been the subject of several biographies, children's books, and documentaries and was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize in 2005 alongside 1,000 other women.

Early life and education

Yuri Kochiyama was born Mary Yuriko Nakahara on May 19, 1921, in the San Pedro neighborhood of Los Angeles. Her mother and father were both Japanese immigrants. Her father, Seiichi Nakahara, was from Iwate, while her mother, Tsuyako Sawaguchi, was from Fukushima.[1] According to a family history compiled by Kochiyama's cousin, Tama Kondo, and his wife, Mary Tama Kondo, Kochiyama's father was the son of a retired samurai. He arrived in the United States in 1907, working first as an orange picker and then as a fish canner before opening a fish market and starting a business called The Pacific Coast Fish Company. Her mother was an English teacher and piano instructor.[2]

Due to the relative affluence and prestige that came with the success of her father's fishmongering business, Kochiyama enjoyed a comfortable childhood.[3] She was raised Christian, with her family attending the St. Mary's Episcopal Church in Los Angeles. She also attended several nearby Christian Science and Presbyterian churches on her own initiative, working as a Sunday school teacher. However, she criticized aspects of the religion that she viewed as being overly sectarian or chauvinistic.[4]

Kochiyama attended San Pedro High School. While there, she became involved in numerous extracurricular activities. She attended Japanese language school; became the school's first female student body officer; wrote articles for the local San Pedro News-Pilot; played tennis; and served as a counselor for the Bluebirds, the Girl Scouts, and the YWCA Girl Reserves.[2] After graduating, she attended Compton Junior College, where she studied art, journalism, and English. She graduated in June 1941 with an arts degree, after which she struggled to find employment due to racial discrimination.[5]

Internment of Japanese Americans

Jerome Relocation Center, 1942

The Japanese military launched an aerial assault on the naval base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, triggering the Pacific War between the United States and Japan and causing many Americans to become suspicious of Japanese Americans, viewing them as "undesirables".[6] Soon after, the Kochiyama family's home was ransacked by members of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), who discovered photographs of Japanese naval ships. This, combined with her father's friendship with prominent Japanese figures such as Ambassador Kichisaburō Nomura, led the FBI to suspect him of espionage. He was detained at Terminal Island federal penitentiary.[7] On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which called for the forced internment of all people of Japanese ancestry living on the West Coast.[8] Kochiyama's father, who had been experiencing health issues that were exacerbated by his imprisonment, died two days later on January 21, 1942, just after being released from the penitentiary.[2]

In accordance with Roosevelt's order, the remaining members of Kochiyama's family were sent to the Santa Anita Assembly Center. While there, Kochiyama worked as a nurse's aide and helped to organize a group of Sunday school students called "the Crusaders".[9] Despite being imprisoned, many Nisei (second-generation Japanese American) men joined the United States military as part of the 442nd Infantry Regiment.[10] Because many of the Crusaders had relatives who had joined the military, they initiated a letter-writing campaign, first covering six soldiers but expanding to include roughly three thousand.[11] The family spent seven months at Santa Anita before being sent to the Jerome War Relocation Center in Arkansas.[2] While imprisoned at Jerome, she continued her work on the letter-writing campaign; wrote for the camp newspaper, the Denson Tribune; and volunteered with the United Service Organizations (USO).[12][13]

Yuri met her future husband, a Nisei soldier named Bill Kochiyama, while working with the USO. They initially planned to get married at Camp Shelby, where Bill was stationed, in 1944, but the wedding was postponed due to objections from Bill's father, who wanted to meet Yuri before the two married. Soon after, Kochiyama left the camp to work with the USO in Hattiesburg, Mississippi and later to work with Nisei soldiers in Minneapolis. The Jerome War Relocation Center closed on June 30, 1944, and Yuri's family returned to San Pedro in 1945.[14] Yuri moved to New York on January 23, 1946, and married Bill on February 9 of the same year.[15]

Life in New York

The couple's first two children were born in 1947, while Bill was attending college at Long Island University and Yuri was working as a waitress. They struggled financially for some time before Bill found work as a public relations officer for the Japan International Christian University Foundation (JICUF). Soon after, they had four more children.[16] They held social gatherings at their home on Friday and Saturday nights. The popularity of these gatherings led their home to be nicknamed "Grand Central Station", with many important figures attending the gatherings, including Japanese Supreme Court justice Mansaburo Shoda and Ishwar Gulati, advisor to first Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru.[17] The couple also joined the Nisei Sino Service Organization (NSSO), which worked to support Asian American soldiers, and advocated for the Hiroshima Maidens, a group of 25 hibakusha (lit. 'survivor of the bomb')[b] who traveled to the United States in 1955 to receive reconstructive surgery.[19][20]

Activism

Civil rights movement

See also: Civil rights movement

CORE activism

In 1960, the Kochiyamas moved to Harlem—at the time a predominantly Black neighborhood—during which time they befriended James Peck, an activist for the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) who was injured as a result of his activity with the Freedom Riders. Kochiyama joined CORE and the Harlem Parents Committee, an organization advocating for improved education for inner-city children, in 1963.[21] Also in 1963, she participated in a series of protests organized by CORE at the construction site for the SUNY Downstate Medical Center in Brooklyn. The purpose of the protests was to oppose the racially discriminatory admission policies of the unions at the construction site.[c][22] Kochiyama attended the protests with her children. At one point, she was arrested alongside her son Billy for disorderly conduct, spending half a day in jail before her release.[23] In the end, Black and Puerto Rican workers were not guaranteed employment at the construction site as the protesters had hoped, but the protests did attract new members to CORE's cause.[d][25]

Friendship with Malcolm X

The hearing for Kochiyama's arrest during the Medical Center protests took place on October 16, 1963, and it was there that she first encountered Malcolm X. She initiated a conversation with him, expressing admiration for his work but criticizing his "harsh stance on integration". Malcolm invited Kochiyama to meet with him at his office to discuss his stance on integration further but was unable to do so initially due to fears for his personal safety arising from his public conflict with Nation of Islam (NOI) leader Elijah Muhammad. The two did eventually meet again while Kochiyama was hosting an event at her house on behalf of the Hiroshima-Nagasaki World Peace Mission Study, a group of hibakusha activists calling for disarmament. They had expressed a desire to meet Malcolm while in the United States, and he gave a speech before the gathered activists. In the speech, he compared the plight of the hibakusha with the racism experienced by Black Americans and praised Asian communist leaders like Ho Chi Minh and Mao Zedong. Malcolm and Kochiyama continued to correspond after this as Malcolm traveled throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe.[26] In 1964, Kochiyama also began attending lectures given by the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU), a political advocacy organization created by Malcolm to further the civil rights movement.[27][28]

External image
image icon "The Violent End of the Man Called Malcolm", LIFE, March 5, 1965. Photo of Kochiyama cradling the dying Malcolm X's head.[29]

Kochiyama was present at Malcolm's assassination at the Audubon Ballroom, where Malcolm was holding an OAAU rally, on February 21, 1965.[30] While it is not entirely clear what happened that night,[e] Malcolm was shot multiple times by several assailants wielding shotguns and semi-automatic handguns. Initially, Kochiyama stayed to comfort Malcolm's wife, Betty Shabazz, and his children. However, eventually, Kochiyama went onstage to try to render aid to Malcolm, resting his head on her lap.[35] A photograph taken by Life magazine depicts this moment.[29][36]

Black nationalist activism

Beginning in 1964, Kochiyama began to affiliate with the Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM), a Maoist organization founded in Ohio by members of several activist groups. The organization's tenets included revolutionary nationalism and self-defense.[37] While she never formally joined the organization, she did provide support for its work in Harlem, with civil rights activist Muhammad Ahmad (also known as Max Stanford) identifying her as a pivotal figure in the establishment of the Black Panther Party (BPP) in Harlem.[38] Beginning in 1966, the FBI began monitoring her activities, describing her as a Black nationalist "ring leader" and potential "Red Chinese agent".[39]

After the mass arrest of 17 RAM members in 1967, Kochiyama joined the Republic of New Afrika (RNA), a Black separatist organization that claimed five states in the Southern United States as the territory for a new Black nation.[40] She took an oath of citizenship to the RNA on September 13, 1969, and, in accordance with the practice adopted by many Black activists of adopting Muslim names, she began to go by her Japanese name, Yuri. After attending the organization's Brooklyn Consulate, she also began to take classes on various aspects of revolutionary life with the RNA and acted as the organization's "communication person" in Harlem.[41]

Support for political prisoners

On the weekend, we'd visit political prisoners. Everyone went according to if they had the money because it costs money to go to a prison. So each person went when they could. I mean everybody has their whole life and things they have to do at home. But I'll tell you, we were busy during that time [in the late 1960s and early 1970s]. Every week, more brothers and sisters would be arrested. We were working on scores of cases at the time—trying to keep up with the visiting, writing, attending court hearings. If I could show you all the leaflets were made, you'd get an idea how expansive the work was.

— Yuri Kochiyama, quoted by Diane C. Fujino in Heartbeat of Struggle: The Revolutionary Life of Yuri Kochiyama[42]

Kochiyama supported political prisoners and people who she saw as victims of suppression by law enforcement throughout her life.[43] This support began in the mid-1960s, when she began advocating for Mae Mallory, who had been arrested for allegedly kidnapping a white couple in retaliation for an attack by the Ku Klux Klan on Freedom Riders in Monroe, North Carolina.[44] Later, after the arrest of the members of RAM, she organized a fundraising event on their behalf so that they could meet their $200,000 bond. She also corresponded with imprisoned members of the Black Panther Party (BPP); acted as a point of contact for many political prisoners affiliated with the RNA; and advocated for the Harlem Six, Martin Sostre, Mutulu Shakur, and various other imprisoned political activists.[42][45][46] As part of this work, she helped to found the National Committee to Defend Political Prisoners (NCDPP) in the early 1970s.[47] Kochiyama once used Eastwind Books as her address for letters from inmates and political prisoners. Eastwind Books, which was owned by Asian American Political Alliance and Third World Liberation Front activist Harvey Dong, was one of the first Asian American bookstores in the United States.[48]

Asian American movement activism

Kochiyama is considered an important figure in the Asian American movement, which, drawing upon anti-imperialist and antiracist ethics, adopted a pan-Asian focus. Members of the Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, South Asian, and Southeast Asian communities all participated.[43][49] In 1969, Kochiyama joined Asian Americans for Action (AAA), a pan-Asian advocacy organization operating in New York.[50] As part of her work with the AAA, Kochiyama participated in various anti-war demonstrations in New York and Washington, D.C. Many Asian American activists considered Kochiyama a mentor, and she spoke at several events on behalf of the movement.[51]

Conversion to Islam and family struggles

In 1971, Kochiyama, influenced by Malcolm's teachings and by imprisoned imam Rasul Suleiman, converted to Sunni Islam. She studied with Suleiman, attending the Sankore mosque in Greenhaven Prison in Stormville, New York.[52] Worrying about how her family would react, she hid her conversion from her husband and children, only discussing it with her daughter Aichi. She also began to experience marital difficulties during the early 1970s as her movement activities interfered with her home life.[52] In 1975, her son, Billy, committed suicide by drowning himself in the Hudson River after being severely injured in a car accident in 1967, which left him without a leg. After Billy's death, Kochiyama reduced her commitments to spend more time with her family. She deconverted from Islam in 1975.[53]

Support for Puerto Rican independence

As part of her work with political prisoners, Kochiyama corresponded with Lolita Lebrón. Lebrón was a Puerto Rican nationalist who had been arrested in 1954 alongside Rafael Cancel Miranda, Andres Figueroa Cordero, and Irvin Flores after shooting at a group of United States Representatives on behalf of the nationalist movement.[54] According to historian Diane C. Fujino:

Yuri reasoned that the independentistas would have preferred nonviolent tactics, but since the U.S. government had not responded to their peaceful requests, they viewed armed struggle as a legitimate form of struggle, as sanctioned under international law. Although highly controversial, independentistas and supporters like Yuri claim that because the U.S. government is responsible for the conditions of devastation and dependency in Puerto Rico, targeting the symbols of American imperialism—the president’s residence and Congress—is a legitimate form of resistance, even self-defense, from a revolutionary perspective.[55]

Kochiyama served on the board of the Committee for Puerto Rican Decolonization and the Puerto Rican Solidarity Committee, though she was asked to resign from the Solidarity Committee due to her support for paramilitary organizations such as the Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Puertorriqueña (FALN, transl. 'Armed Forces of National Liberation'). She also participated in an occupation of the Statue of Liberty on behalf of Lebrón and her fellow imprisoned activists on October 25, 1977, seizing it for nine hours before she and the other participants were arrested and released the next day.[56] In 1979, President Jimmy Carter commuted the sentences of Lebrón, Flores, and Cancel and posthumously granted clemency to Figueroa, who had died of cancer in 1978.[54]

Redress movement

In the 1980s, as organizers of East Coast Japanese Americans for Redress and Reparations, Yuri and Bill advocated for reparations and a government apology for the incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II. They also spearheaded the campaign to bring the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWIRC) to New York.[2][29] After the publication of the CWIRC report on Japanese American internment, Personal Justice Denied, and pressure from Japanese American advocacy organizations, President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which, among other things, awarded $20,000 to each internment survivor.[57]

Later life and death

In the 1980s, after her husband's retirement, Kochiyama began working with the United Methodist Committee on Relief (UMCOR), a Christian organization that helped communities recover from disasters.[58] She also taught international students English, volunteered at homeless shelters and soup kitchens, and continued her support for prisoners, including Mumia Abu-Jamal, a Black activist sentenced to death in 1982 for the murder of Philadelphia police officer Daniel Faulkner.[59][60]

In 1987, Kochiyama helped form a support committee for prisoner David Wong, who had been sentenced to twenty-five years to life in prison by an all-white jury for the murder of a fellow inmate. Kochiyama wrote letters to, fundraised for, and visited Wong in prison.[61] In 2004, Wong's conviction was overturned by the Appellate Division of the New York Supreme Court, which granted him a new trial where his charges were ultimately dismissed. Soon after, he was deported to China.[62] Kochiyama also formed a similar support committee for Yū Kikumura, an alleged member of the Japanese Red Army convicted of planning to bomb a United States Navy recruitment office in the Veterans Administration building in 1988. Kochiyama believed that Kikumura's sentence was an example of political persecution and organized in his defense.[63] Kikumura was ultimately released from prison in the United States, after which he was deported to Japan.[64]

On November 19, 1989, the Kochiyamas' third child, Aichi, was killed after being hit by a taxi in Manhattan. Soon after, Kochiyama was fired from her position at the UMCOR.[65] In April 1993, Kochiyama joined a delegation to Peru organized by the Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP) to gather support for Abimael Guzmán, the imprisoned leader of the Peruvian Maoist revolutionary group Shining Path.[66] A year earlier, in 1992, Guzmán had been arrested by police acting on behalf of Japanese-Peruvian dictator Alberto Fujimori.[67][68] Kochiyama was originally skeptical of working with Shining Path, which had been criticized by some members of the American left-wing movement for its use of violence. However, according to Kochiyama, after being given "reading materials" by RCP member Phil Farnham to "become ‘educated’ on the real situation in Peru", she "came to completely support the revolution" there.[69]

Later that year, on October 25, Bill died of cardiac complications.[70] Then, after having a stroke in 1997, Yuri moved to Oakland to live near her family. In 2000, she moved to a retirement home, and in 2004, she published the memoir Passing it On, which discusses her early life, her time at the Jerome War Relocation Center, her friendship with Malcolm, and the deaths of her children.[71][72] Kochiyama died in Berkeley, California on June 1, 2014, at the age of 93.[73]

Views

Views on race

Journalist Elaine Woo, writing for the Los Angeles Times, describes Kochiyama as "straddl[ing] black revolutionary politics and Asian American empowerment movements".[f][73] Fujino contends that Kochiyama's views on race first developed as a result of her time at the Jerome War Relocation Center; then developed further when she moved to New York City, where she maintained relationships with Black and Puerto Rican neighbors and observed the mistreatment of Black soldiers as a waitress, noting that they "couldn't walk on any main drags in the south, even in uniform"; and then even further when Kochiyama moved to Harlem, where she began to become more politically active and where she met Malcolm.[74] During her first meeting with Malcolm, she praised his work on behalf of the Black community but criticized his "harsh stance on integration".[75] She wrote in a subsequent letter that:

It may be possible that non-Negroes may wake up and learn to treat all people as human beings. And when that time comes, I am sure that your pronouncement for separation will be changed to integration. If each of us, white, yellow, and what-have-you, can earn our way into your confidence by actual performance, will you ... could you ... believe in ‘togetherness’ of all people?[76]

Kochiyama's integrationist stance was challenged by her time attending lectures at the OAAU Liberation School, whose instructors advocated for self-defense as opposed to nonviolence and emphasized international solidarity and the systemic causes of racism.[77][78] In the 1966 issue of her family newsletter, the North Star, she praised the Black power movement and criticized integration's "frailty".[79] Fujino also claims that Kochiyama was also influenced by the Black Arts Repertory Theater and School (BARTS), which was founded in 1965 by poet, educator, and activist LeRoi Jones (later Amiri Baraka) "for black people, and only black people".[80] According to Fujino, Kochiyama may have developed an appreciation for the effect exclusionary, autonomous spaces had on white supremacy from observing BARTS's policies and practices. Fujino characterizes Kochiyama's views by the late 1960s as being in line with the principles of revolutionary nationalism.[81] Later in life, Kochiyama tied the Black freedom struggle with the Asian American movement, praising civil rights activist Robert F. Williams for his overtures to Mao Zedong and drawing connections between the redress movement and the movement for reparations for Black Americans.[82]

Views on international affairs

Kochiyama was a strong critic of what she saw as American imperialism.[2] She opposed the Vietnam War, questioning the democratic motives of the United States government and claiming that the United States had actually invaded Vietnam for its natural resources. She also praised Vietnamese revolutionary Nguyễn Văn Trỗi, who had attempted to assassinate United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara on May 2, 1964, by planting a mine under a bridge that he was set to travel over.[83] Kochiyama called Văn Trỗi a "hero" and claimed that "many Movement people named their children after him".[84]

Kochiyama also opposed American military presence in Okinawa, calling American military installations there "invasion bases" whose purpose was to "attack, supply military arms and ammunitions, and to transport supplies, and to train and entertain U.S. soldiers". While she initially supported Japanese control over the islands in 1969, her views had changed by 1970. She criticized the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty, characterizing it as "the combining of American military might and Japanese economic power to rule a vast Pacific empire". She also criticized Japanese militarism, including the Japanese military's war crimes and its sexual enslavement of comfort women during World War II.[85]

In response to the actions taken by the United States after the 2001 September 11 attacks, Kochiyama stated that "the goal of the war [on terror] is more than just getting oil and fuel. The United States is intent on taking over the world" and that "it's important we all understand that the main terrorist and the main enemy of the world's people is the U.S. government". She drew comparisons between the targeting of Arabs and Muslims after the attacks and the targeting of Japanese Americans after the attack on Pearl Harbor, claiming that both led to "racial profiling".[86]

Interviewed in 2003, Kochiyama said that she "consider[s] Osama bin Laden as one of the people that I admire. To me, he is in the category of Malcolm X, Che Guevara, Patrice Lumumba, Fidel Castro... I thank Islam for bin Laden. America's greed, aggressiveness, and self-righteous arrogance must be stopped. War and weaponry must be abolished".[87] The statement generated controversy, with Vox's Dylan Matthews criticizing Kochiyama's statement, characterizing bin Laden as "a mass murderer ... a vicious misogynist and hardly the brave anti-imperial class traitor Kochiyama fancies him as".[88][89]

Legacy

During her life, Kochiyama was the subject of many biographical works. In 1992, an oral history Kochiyama recounted to Joann Faung Jean Lee was published in Lee's book Asian Americans: Oral Histories of First to Fourth Generation Americans from China, the Philippines, Japan, India, the Pacific Islands, Vietnam, and Cambodia.[90] In 1993, Rea Tajiri and Pat Saunders produced a documentary about her life entitled Yuri Kochiyama: Passion for Justice. She also featured in the documentaries My America...or Honk if You Love Buddha, directed by Renee Tajima-Peña; All Power to the People, directed by Lee Lew Lee; and When Mountains Take Wing, directed by C.A. Griffith and H.L.T. Quan.[91] Several biographies were also written about her, including 1998's Yuri: The Life and Times of Yuri Kochiyama by Japanese journalist Mayumi Nakazawa and 2005's Heartbeat of Struggle: The Revolutionary Life of Yuri Kochiyama by Diane C. Fujino.[92][93]

In 2005, Kochiyama was one of 1,000 women collectively nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize through the "1,000 Women for the Nobel Peace Prize 2005" project, though the prize ultimately went to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and its director general, Mohamed ElBaradei.[94][95] Then in 2007, she was the subject of the play Yuri and Malcolm X, written by Japanese American playwright, Tim Toyama.[29][96] In 2010, she received an honorary doctorate from California State University, East Bay, and in 2011, a song titled "Yuri Kochiyama" was released on the Blue Scholars album Cinemetropolis.[59][97][98]

After Kochiyama's death in 2014, the Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center released an online exhibition entitled "Folk Hero: Remembering Yuri Kochiyama through Grassroots Art".[96][99] The White House under President Barack Obama also released a statement honoring Kochiyama's legacy. The statement praised Kochiyama for her "pursuit of social justice, not only for the Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) community, but all communities of color".[100] She is featured in the book Rad American Women A–Z, which was written in 2015 by Kate Schatz and illustrated by Miriam Klein Stahl.[101][102]

On May 19, 2016, Kochiyama's 95th birthday was commemorated with a Google Doodle, prompting both praise and condemnation of Google and Kochiyama, whose comments regarding bin Laden and Mao Zedong were criticized.[g] The Doodle's critics included Republican Senator Pat Toomey of Pennsylvania, who called for a public apology from the company.[106] Kochiyama is the subject of the 2024 book The Bridges Yuri Built: How Yuri Kochiyama Marched Across Movement, which was written by her great-granddaughter Kai Naima Williams and illustrated by Anastasia Magloire Williams.[107][108]

Notes

  1.  Not to be confused with the National Committee for the Defense of Political Prisoners (also NCDPP).
  2.  Generally used to refer to surviving victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[18]
  3.  The Medical Center was being constructed by laborers from the building trade unions, which were all-white at the time.[22]
  4.  According to the historian Brian Purnell: "There was no guarantee that the Building Trades Council or the unions would support [Governor Nelson Rockefeller]'s and the ministers' [a group of Black ministers who supported the protests] apprenticeship program; nor did it makes promises regarding immediate jobs at the Downstate construction site for black and Puerto Rican workers".[24][25] Kochiyama remembered it differently: "That was a lesson for me in how masses of people can put pressure on people in power and force them to change their policies. The construction companies were forced to hire black and Puerto Rican workers that summer”.[23]
  5.  The identity of the assassins is a point of contention. Authorities arrested NOI members Norman 3X Butler, Talmadge Hayer, and Thomas 15X Johnson, and the three men were convicted of the crime.[31][32] However, while both Marable and Payne & Payne in their respective biographies of Malcolm identify Hayer as one of the shooters, the others are identified as Leon X Davis and William 25X (also known as William Bradley), who Marable and Payne & Payne say shot the shotgun.[33][34]
  6.  The original story was published in the Los Angeles Times, but then reprinted by the Washington Post.[73]
  7.  For praise, see [88] and;[103] for condemnation, see [104] and;[105] for a mix of both, see.[89]

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  69.  Fujino 2005, pp. 291–292.
  70.  Fujino 2005, p. 285.
  71.  Fujino 2005, pp. 304–308.
  72.  Kawashima 2009.
  73.  Woo 2014.
  74.  Fujino 2008a, pp. 67–69.
  75.  Fujino 2005, pp. 136–137.
  76.  Fujino 2009, p. 297.
  77.  Fujino 2005, pp. 151–152.
  78.  Fujino 2008b, pp. 178–179.
  79.  Fujino 2009, p. 298.
  80.  The Poetry Foundation.
  81.  Fujino 2008b, pp. 179–182.
  82.  Fujino 2009, pp. 309–311.
  83.  Shore 2015, p. 93.
  84.  Fujino 2005, pp. 241–242.
  85.  Fujino 2005, pp. 243–244.
  86.  Fujino 2005, p. 310.
  87.  Kochiyama 2003.
  88.  Cavna 2016.
  89.  Matthews 2016.
  90.  Kochiyama 1992, pp. 10–18.
  91.  Roshanravan 2018, p. 265.
  92.  Fujino 2005, p. 300.
  93.  Rafu Shimpo 2014.
  94.  PeaceWomen Across the Globe.
  95.  The Nobel Prize 2024.
  96.  Smithsonian APA Center 2014.
  97.  AllMusic.
  98.  Jandu 2014.
  99.  George 2021.
  100.  Ahuja 2014.
  101.  Park Dahlen 2019.
  102.  Kirkus 2015.
  103.  Hinckley 2016.
  104.  Tobin 2016.
  105.  Hemingway 2016.
  106.  Trujillo 2016.
  107.  Kirkus 2024.
  108.  Forster 2024.

Sources

Wikiquote has quotations related to Yuri Kochiyama.
==

ユリ・コウチヤマ

出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』
ユリ・コウチヤマ（河内山 百合子）
Yuri Kochiyama
生誕Mary Yuriko Nakahara
1921年5月19日
アメリカ合衆国の旗 アメリカ合衆国・カリフォルニア州サンペドロ
死没2014年6月1日（93歳没）
アメリカ合衆国の旗 アメリカ合衆国・カリフォルニア州バークレー
国籍アメリカ合衆国の旗 アメリカ合衆国
職業活動家
配偶者Bill Kochiyama
(1946年–1993年;死別)
子供6
テンプレートを表示

ユリ・コウチヤマ（Yuri Kochiyama、漢字：河内山 百合、1921年5月19日[1] - 2014年6月1日[2][3]）はアメリカ合衆国の公民権運動家、社会活動家。ユリ・コチヤマとも称した[4]。

日系アメリカ人である家族の強制収容を経験する。マルコム・Xと深く交流があり、黒人分離主義や反戦運動、毛沢東主義革命、米国政府による日系アメリカ人の強制収容への賠償、政府に拘留された人々の権利などを主張し続けた。生涯を通じて活動し、人種や国籍、ジェンダーを超えて幅広い人々を結びつけた。少数派である日系アメリカ人の代弁者として功績を残す。2016年5月19日、アメリカ版グーグルのロゴに取り上げられた[5]。

生い立ちと教育

1921年5月19日、カリフォルニア州サンペドロで生まれる。出生名はメアリー・ユリコ・ナカハラ（Mary Yuriko Nakahara）。父親は日本からの移民で魚商を主とした起業家、中原正一(Seiichi Nakahara) で、母親は大学出でピアノ教師の主婦ツヤコ・サワグチ・ナカハラ (Tsuyako (Sawaguchi) Nakahara) であった。彼女には双子の兄弟であるピーターと、兄のアーサーがいた。一家は比較的裕福であり、彼女は白人の多い地域で育った。子どもの頃から長老派教会に通い、日曜学校で教えていた。サンペドロ高校（英語版）に入学、女生徒として最初の生徒会役員になり、学校通信に執筆し、テニスチームに参加した。1939年に高校を卒業し、コンプトン短期大学（英語版）に入学して英語、ジャーナリズム、そして芸術を専攻し、1941年に卒業した[6]。

彼女の生活は、大日本帝国が真珠湾を攻撃した1941年12月7日 (日本時間:12月8日) に一変した。彼女が教会から帰宅した直後に連邦捜査局 (FBI) の捜査官が、国家の安全を脅かす危険があるといって父親を逮捕した。彼は体が弱く、病院から退院したばかりだった[7]。FBIは自宅を捜索し、日本海軍の艦船の写真や、駐米大使野村吉三郎を含む重要な日本人との交友に疑念を呈した[8]。6週間に渡る拘留は父親の病状を悪化させ、1942年1月20に釈放された時には、話すことができないほどだった。釈放の翌日、父親は亡くなった[6]。

父親が没したすぐ後に、米国大統領フランクリン・ルーズベルトは大統領令9066号を発したが、それは太平洋岸に住む約12万人の日本人を強制退去させ、全米の異なる収容所へ収容するというものだった。ユリと母親と兄弟は、サンタ・アニタ強制収容所の改造された厩舎に数ヵ月「避難」し、その後アーカンソー州のジェローム戦争移住センターへ移され、そこで3年間過ごした。収容されていた間に、彼女は後に夫になる、米国の二世軍人ビル・コウチヤマと出会った。二人は1946年に結婚した[6]。1948年にニューヨークへ移り、6人の子をもうけ、公営住宅に12年間住んだ。1960年にコウチヤマ夫妻はニューヨーク市のハーレムに引っ越し、ハーレム保護協会と人種平等会議（英語版） (CORE) に参加した。

活動家として

1963年10月に仕事に抗議した約600人の少数民族建設作業員が逮捕されたことに対する抗議中の[9][10]マルコム・Xと出会ったことから、汎アフリカ主義アフリカ系アメリカ人統一機構（英語版）に参加した。1965年2月21日、ニューヨーク市マンハッタン区のワシントンハイツにあるオーデュボン舞踊場で襲撃され瀕死のマルコム・Xを腕に抱いている[11]瞬間をとらえた写真がライフ誌に掲載された。[12]　自分にとってのマルコムの死の意味を1965年3月11日発行『ニューヨーク日米』に寄稿した[13]。その後も多くの革命的ナショナリストのリーダーたちと親しくなり、その中には『毛沢東語録』の初版を彼女に贈ったロバート・F・ウィリアムズ（英語版）もいた[14][15][16]。ベトナム戦争中、その後の抗議運動の中で育ったアジア系アメリカ人運動（英語版）の急進的指導者の一人になった。東海岸の日系人の補償と救済の主導者として、ユリとビルは第二次世界大戦中に強制収容された日系アメリカ人のための救済と政府の謝罪（英語版）を主張し、「戦時中の市民の移住と収容に関する委員会（英語版）」をニューヨークに誘致するキャンペーンの先頭にたった[6]。更に、第二次大戦中に強制連行、強制収容された日系アメリカ人のために、フランクリン・ルーズベルト大統領が大統領令9066号を発令した日を記憶する「追憶の日」委員会をニューヨークに設立した。ロナルド・レーガン大統領は1988年、強制収容から生還した日系アメリカ人一人一人に2万ドルずつを支給するという市民自由法に署名した後、アフリカ系アメリカ人の賠償を主張した[6]。後年コウチヤマは、第二次大戦中の日系アメリカ人の経験と同様の現象に見えるとして、アメリカ合衆国に住むムスリム、中東そして南アジアの人々に対する一面的で強固な偏見への抗議活動を積極的に行った。

1971年、イスラム教スンニ派に改宗、ニューヨーク州ストームビルのグリーンヘブン刑務所（英語版）にあるサンコーレ・モスクに通い、イマム・ラスル・スレイマンのもとで勉強と礼拝をするようになった[17]。

ニューヨーク市で、移民の学生に英語を教え、ホームレスの保護施設で食事を提供するボランティアを行った[18]。デビ―・アレンのテレビ番組シリーズ「クール・ウーマン」 (2001) で「私の残したい遺産は、人々が壁でなく橋を架けようとすることです」と述べている[19]。

支援活動

「入り組んだ政治信条」の女性として、また場合によっては人種の融合と分離の両方の支援をやりとげようとする「矛盾した見解」を持つ女性として語られた[20]。彼女は毛沢東とホー・チ・ミンの両方を称賛した[21]。

ペルーの毛沢東主義ゲリラグループであるセンデロ・ルミノソを支援し[21][22][23][24]、ペルーへの派遣団に参加したが、それはアメリカの毛沢東主義者の革命共産党（英語版）が組織したもので、センデロ・ルミノソの投獄されたリーダーであるアビマエル・グスマンへの支援を集めるものだった。「本を読めば読むほど、ペルーでの革命を完全に支援するようになった」と語っている[21]。

1960年代半ばに革命的行動運動（英語版）に参加したが、これは都市ゲリラ武力行為のための黒人ナショナリスト組織で、マルコムX、マルクス、レーニン、そして毛沢東思想を統合したイデオロギーを構築しようとする黒人解放運動の最初の一つであった[25]。1968年に彼女は黒人以外では数少ない招待者の一人として新アフリカ共和国 (RNA) に招かれたが、それはアメリカ合衆国南部に黒人の国家を分離して創設しようという運動であった。コウチヤマは参加してすぐに、黒人国家を分離して作る必要性は北部の都市での公民権運動よりも大きいというRNAに賛同した[26]。コウチヤマがRNAの「市民」となってから、彼女は自身の「奴隷の名前」であるメアリーを放棄し、ユリだけを使うことにした [27]。

デイヴィッド・ウォン支援委員会を立ち上げ支援し続け、14年間の闘争の末に、刑務所の仲間の殺人罪から無罪を勝ち取った。彼女は獄中のウォンに手紙を書き、資金を集め、面会に出向いた[28]。

政治犯やFBIの弾圧の犠牲者を支援した[29]。1981年にフィラデルフィアの警官ダニエル・フォークナー（英語版）を殺害した罪で1982年に死刑宣告されたアフリカ系アメリカ人活動家ムミア・アブ＝ジャマールの弁護活動をした[30]。また彼女はアフリカ系アメリカ人活動家で以前黒人解放軍 (BLA) のメンバーだったアサータ・シャク―ル（英語版）の友人であり支援者で[31]、シャクールは米国の刑務所から脱獄してキューバに逃れるまで、ニュージャージー州警察官の第一級殺人罪で有罪判決を受けていた。シャクールのことを「女性のマルコム [X] か、女性のムミア [アブ＝ジャマール] のようだ」と言っていた[32]。フェミニストの詩人であるマリリン・バック（英語版）も支援したが[33]、バックは1979年のシャクールの脱獄や、1981年のBrink's robbery、1983年のアメリカ合衆国上院爆破事件（英語版）の罪で投獄されていた[34]。

1977年、プエルトリコ人グループに参加し、プエルトリコ人独立運動（英語版）への関心を高めるためにニューヨークの自由の女神像を占拠した。コウチヤマと他の活動家たちは、殺人未遂容疑で逮捕された4人のプエルトリコ人―ロリータ・レブロン、ラファエル・キャンセル・ミランダ、アンドレス・フィゲロア・コルデロ、そしてアーヴィング・フローレス・ロドリゲス―の釈放を求めていた[35]。この4人は1954年の米国議会議事堂襲撃事件（英語版）で5人の議員を負傷させた。活動家たちは9時間にわたり女神像を占拠し、警官が介入すると平和的に退去した。ジミー・カーター大統領は1979年に彼ら4人に恩赦を与えた。

日本赤軍のメンバーである菊村憂も支援したが[36]、彼は1986年にアムステルダムのスキポール空港で荷物に爆弾を入れていたところを逮捕され、退役軍人管理局ビルにある米国海軍募集所を爆破しようとした罪で有罪判決を受けた。コウチヤマは菊村の30年という刑期が彼の政治活動に動機づけられていると感じていた[28]。

1988年、第19回ベンセレーモス隊に参加し、149名の北米隊員の一員としてキューバを訪問した。一行は2週間にわたり都市や地方をバスで巡り、人々の生活と文化を直に観察した。アメリカから逃れてきていたアサータ・シャクールに会うこともできた[37]。

1993年、革命共産党 (RCP) と英国の国際緊急問題委員会の国際派遣団の一員としてペルーを訪れ、紛争の続く国情を見て回った[38]。

論争

2001年のアメリカ同時多発テロ事件に続くアメリカ合衆国の行動に対して、「対テロ戦争のゴールは石油と燃料の獲得だけではない。アメリカ合衆国は世界を征服しようとしている。世界の人々にとって主要なテロリストであり主要な敵は、合衆国政府だということを理解するのが重要だ」と述べている[39]。

2003年のインタビューで「オサマ・ビン・ラディンは私が尊敬した人物の一人です。私にとって彼は、マルコムX、チェ・ゲバラ、パトリス・ルムンバ、フィデル・カストロ…達のカテゴリーに入ります。私はビン・ラディンのためにイスラム教に感謝します。アメリカの強欲、攻撃性、独善的な傲慢さは止めるべきです。戦争と兵器は廃止するべきです。」と語った[21][40]。

95歳の誕生日にあたる2016年5月19日、アメリカ版Googleのロゴに彼女は登場したが、オサマ・ビン・ラディンやアルカイダそしてセンデロ・ルミノソのグループについての過去の発言をめぐって論争を巻き起こした。

顕彰

2005年「1000人のピースウーマン」プロジェクトによって、ノーベル平和賞に推薦された1,000人の女性の一人であった[10][41]。

2010年　カリフォルニア州立大学イーストベイ校から名誉博士号を授与された[18]。

2014年6月6日、ホワイトハウスは「アジア系アメリカ人や太平洋諸島人コミュニティだけでなく、全ての有色人種コミュニティのために、社会正義の実現に人生を捧げた」として、コウチヤマをウェブサイト上で称えた[42]。

2014年、スミソニアン協会アジア太平洋アメリカンセンター（英語版）は「民族の英雄：草の根芸術を通したユリ・コウチヤマの追憶」を企画し、「賞賛」の特徴付けをしたデジタル展示会を行った[43][44]。

2016年5月19日、アメリカ版Googleのロゴはコウチヤマの生誕95年を記念したが[45]、それはコウチヤマとGoogleに対する賞賛[46][47]と批判[21][48][49]の両方を呼び起こし、パット・トーミ―（英語版）議員 (R-Penn.) は同社に対し公開の謝罪を求めた[50]。

2019年3月、「女性史月間」と「国際女性の権利」に合わせて、パブリック・アート・プロジェクト[51]がミシガン州グランドラピッズのダウンタウンで開催された。それにはコウチヤマが登場する2015年の児童書『Rad American Women A - Z 』 (Kate Schatz 著、Miriam Klein Stahl挿絵) が含まれていた。

家族

父親

岩手県遠野村出身の中原正一で、10代後半の1907年頃に渡米、ロサンゼルスで鮮魚卸問屋を起業した。アメリカ海軍や日本の商船に新鮮な魚、肉、野菜を売りさばき成功をおさめ、見合い結婚のために一時帰国した。母親は福島県会津若松市出身の沢口艶で、東京にある英語の専門学校 (後の津田塾大学) を出て福島県の女学校で英語を教えていた。その学校の校長が正一の祖父で、孫息子の嫁として艶に白羽の矢を立てた。第一次大戦中の1917年に二人は結婚し、アメリカに移民、ロサンゼルスの海岸沿いにあるサンペドロに新居を構えた。1918年には長男のアーサーが、1921年にはユリと双子の次男ピーターが生まれ、一家は落ち着いた生活を営んでいた[52]。

夫ビル

1921年5月10日、マサヨシ・ウィリアム・コチヤマとしてワシントンD.C.で生まれた。父は資産家の息子の河内山豊 (こうちやま ゆたか) で、10代の時一人で英国を経て渡米、ワシントンD.C.で日本国籍の女性との間に3人の子供をもうけた。長女と次男はスペイン風邪で命を落としたが、長男マサヨシは生き延びた。母を幼い時に亡くした為、父はニューヨークの孤児院に彼を預けて仕事をした。マサヨシはニューヨークの高校を出てカリフォルニアで仕事をしていたが、1942年に他の日系人と共に収容所に送られた。サンフランシスコからユタ州トパーズ収容所へ移され1年間を過ごした後、志願して陸軍に入隊するとき、ウィリアム、縮めてビルを名乗るようになった[53]。

1946年にビルとユリは結婚。1947年にビリー、1949年にオーディ、1952年にローリー (愛称アイチ)、1955年にエディ、1957年にジミー、1959年にトミーの6人の子供が生まれた。子供たちは公営団地で結成されたボーイスカウトやガールスカウトに入り、長老派教会の日曜学校に通った。一家には多くの友人や支援者が訪れ、その中で子どもたちは育っていった[54]。長男ビリーは自動車事故で片足を失ったことが原因で数年後の1975年に自殺した。次女アイチはシングル・マザーだったが、23歳のとき活動家のアルカマル・ダンカンと知り合い意気投合した。14年後の1989年、娘のアケミが18歳の時アイチと共に自動車事故にあい、アケミは助かったがアイチは命を落とした[55]。長年病気を患っていたアルカマルは、その5か月後の1990年4月8日に亡くなった[56]。夫のビルは1993年10月25日に亡くなった[57]。

自伝

2004年に自伝『Passing it on : a memoir』をUCLA Asian American Studies Center Pressから出版[58][59]、家族のことに触れた10章と活動家としての軌跡を辿った7章の計17章からなり、巻末に資料18点が付録として添えられ、まえがきは孫娘のアケミ (Akemi Kochiyama-Sardinha) が寄せている[60]。2010年には彩流社から自伝の日本語訳『ユリ・コチヤマ回顧録 : 日系アメリカ人女性 人種・差別・連帯を語り継ぐ』が出版されたが[61][62]、原書にあった家族に関する3章と巻末資料が省かれ、全14章となっている。

死去

1999年　家族の要請でニューヨークからカリフォルニア州オークランドに移住し[63]、その地で2014年6月1日、93歳で亡くなった[64]。

参考文献

出典

  1.  Zinn Education Projetct "May 19, 1921: Yuri Kochiyama Born"2020年12月2日閲覧。
  2.  Yardley, William (2014年6月4日). “Yuri Kochiyama, Rights Activist Who Befriended Malcolm X, Dies at 93” (英語). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 2020年6月12日閲覧。
  3.  時事ドットコム 2014年6月2日 日系米国人２世の人権活動家、ユリ・コチヤマさん死去 - ウェイバックマシン（2014年7月20日アーカイブ分） 2020年12月2日閲覧。
  4.  ユリ・コチヤマ著『ユリ・コチヤマ回顧録 : 日系アメリカ人 人種・差別・連帯を語り継ぐ』彩流社, 2010年 p252
  5.  Matthews, Dylan (2016年5月19日). “Yuri Kochiyama, today’s Google Doodle, fought for civil rights — and praised bin Laden” (英語). Vox. 2020年6月12日閲覧。
  6.  Fujino, Diane C. (2014年6月3日). “Yuri Kochiyama”. Densho Encyclopedia. 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  7.  Fujino 2005, pp. xv–xxi.
  8.  Murase, Kenji (June 28, 2007). “An "Enemy Alien's" Mysterious Fate”. Nikkei Heritage (National Japanese American Historical Society) IX (1) 2020年11月24日閲覧。.
  9.  Kochiyama, Yuri (1994). “The Impact of Malcolm X on Asian-American Politics and Activism”. In Jennings, James. Blacks, Latinos, and Asians in Urban America: Status and Prospects for Politics and Activism. Westpost, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 129–141. ISBN 978-0-275-94934-1
  10.  Selby, Jenn (June 2, 2014), “Yuri Kochiyama dead: Japanese American human rights activist, revolutionary, and close Malcolm X ally dies aged 93”, The Independent 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  11.  Wang, Hansi Lo (2013年8月19日). “Not Just A 'Black Thing': An Asian-American's Bond With Malcolm X”. NPR. 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  12.  Cosgrove, Ben (2014年6月2日). “Yuri Kochiyama, at Malcolm X's Side When He Died, Is Dead at 93”. TIME 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  13.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p121-124
  14.  “In Memory of Yuri Kochiyama, 1921–2014 With Justice in Her Heart... All of Her Life”, Revolution (Revolutionary Communist Party, USA), (June 9, 2014) 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  15.  Fujino 2005, p. 194.
  16.  https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2014/06/02/318072652/japanese-american-activist-and-malcolm-x-ally-dies-at-93 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  17.  Fujino 2005, p. 206.
  18.  Zepel, Barry (2010年5月6日). “Civil rights leader to receive honorary doctorate from CSUEB”. カリフォルニア州立大学イーストベイ校. 2026年4月12日閲覧。
  19.  “A Heart Without Boundaries – Part 3”. Discover Nikkei (2011年8月24日). 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  20.  “A Passion for Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness”. H-1960s (2006年5月). 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  21.  Matthews, Dylan (2016年5月19日). “Yuri Kochiyama, today's Google Doodle, fought for civil rights – and praised Osama bin Laden”. Vox. 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  22.  Fujino 2005, p. 372.
  23.  “Shining-Path”. Encyclopædia Britannica (2016年3月7日). 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  24.  Mikaberidze, Alexander, ed (2013). Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 598–. ISBN 978-1-59884-926-4
  25.  Fujino 2005, p. 162.
  26.  Fujino, Diane C. (2008). “The Black Liberation Movement and Japanese American Activism: The Radical Activism of Richard Aoki and Yuri Kochiyama”. In Ho, Fred; Mullen, Bill V.. Afro Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections Between African Americans and Asian Americans. Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press. p. 183. ISBN 0-8223-4281-2
  27.  Fujino, Diane C. (1997). “Revolution's from the Heart: The Making of an Asian American Woman Activist, Yuri Kochiyama”. In Shah, Sonia. Dragon Ladies: Asian American Feminists Breathe Fire. Boston: South End Press. pp. 173–181. ISBN 978-0-89608-575-6
  28.  Fujino 2005, p. 282.
  29.  Fujino, Diane Carol (2013). Zhao, Xiaojian; Park, Edward J. W.. eds. Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 666. ISBN 978-1-59884-240-1
  30.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p180-184
  31.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p232-233
  32.  Fujino 2005, p. 232.
  33.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p184-188
  34.  Fujino 2005, p. 311.
  35.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p231-232
  36.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p195-198
  37.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p211-219
  38.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p221-229
  39.  Fujino 2005, p. 310.
  40.  “Yuri Kochiyama: On War, Imperialism, Osama bin Laden, and Black-Asian Politics”. The Objector: A Magazine of Conscience and Resistance. Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors (2003年). 2003年10月11日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年11月24日閲覧。
  41.  “The initiative: 1000 PeaceWomen”. PeaceWomen Across the Globe. 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  42.  Ahuja, Kiran (2014年6月6日). “Honoring the Legacy of Yuri Kochiyama”. White House. 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  43.  Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund [@aaldef] (June 5, 2014). “.@SmithsonianAPA: 14 artists pay tribute to #YuriKochiyama”. X（旧Twitter）より2020年11月24日閲覧.
  44.  "Folk Hero: Remembering Yuri Kochiyama Through Grassroots Art". Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center. Accessed November 24, 2020.
  45.  “Yuri Kochiyama's 95th Birthday”. Google 検索 (2016年5月19日). 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  46.  Cavna, Michael (2016年5月19日). “Yuri Kochiyama: Today's fierce Google Doodle salutes former Japanese internee's lifetime of activism”. The Washington Post 2026年4月12日閲覧。
  47.  Hinckley, Story (2016年5月19日). “Yuri Kochiyama: a nisei ahead of her time”. クリスチャン・サイエンス・モニター 2026年4月12日閲覧。
  48.  Tobin, Jonathan (2016年5月20日). “Hating America at Google”. Commentary 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  49.  Hemingway, Mark (2016年5月20日). “Google, Smithsonian Honor Activist Who Praised Bin Laden, Mao, Terrorists”. ウィークリー・スタンダード (ワシントン・エグザミナー)
  50.  Trujillo, Mario (2016年5月20日). “GOP senator slams Google for tribute to controversial civil rights figure”. The Hill 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  51.  public art project 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  52.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p17-21
  53.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p55-61
  54.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p71-80
  55.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p137-140
  56.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p152
  57.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p67
  58.  “Yuri Kochiyama: 'Passing It On'” (英語). NPR.org. 2020年11月24日閲覧。
  59.  Worldcat 2020年11月24日閲覧
  60.  Passing it on : a memoir by Yuri Nakahara Kochiyama ; edited by Marjorie Lee, Akemi Kochiyama-Sardinha, and Audee Kochiyama-Holman. UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press, c2004
  61.  NDL 2020年12月2日閲覧
  62.  彩流社 2020年12月2日閲覧。
  63.  ユリ・コチヤマ, p256
  64.  Japanese-American Activist Who Helped Win Reparations, Witnessed Malcolm X Shooting Dies at 93, Slate.com, June 4, 2014. Retrieved February 1, 2020 2020年11月24日閲覧。

外部リンク

==

유리 고치야마

출처 : 무료 백과 사전 "Wikipedia (Wikipedia)"
릴리 코우치야마(가와치야마 유리코)
유리 고치야마
탄생Mary Yuriko Nakahara 1921년 5월 19일 미국 캘리포니아 주 산페드로

미국 국기
사망2014년 6월 1일 (93세) 미국 , 캘리포니아 주 버클리
미국 국기
국적미국 국기 미국
직업활동가
배우자Bill Kochiyama
(1946-1993; 사별)
어린이6
템플릿 보기

유리 고치야마 (Yuri Kochiyama,  1921년 5월 19일 [ 1 ] - 2014년 6월 1일 [ 2 ] [ 3 ] )는 미국 의 공민권 운동가, 사회 활동가. 유리 코치야마 라고도 칭했다 [ 4 ] .

일본계 미국인인 가족의 강제 수용을 경험한다. 말콤X 와 깊게 교류가 있어 흑인 분리주의 와 반전운동 , 모택동주의 혁명, 미국 정부에 의한 일본계 미국인의 강제수용 에 대한 배상, 정부에 구류된 사람들의 권리 등을 계속 주장했다. 평생을 통해 활동해, 인종이나 국적, 젠더를 넘어 폭넓은 사람들을 연결시켰다. 소수파인 일본계 미국인의 대변자로서 공적을 남긴다. 2016년 5월 19일, 미국판 구글의 로고 에 거론되었다 [ 5 ] .

삶과 교육

1921년 5월 19일, 캘리포니아주 산 페드로 에서 태어났다. 출생명은 메리 유리코 나카하라(Mary Yuriko Nakahara). 아버지는 일본에서의 이민으로 어상을 주로 한 기업가, 나카하라 마사이치(Seiichi Nakahara)로, 어머니는 대학출에서 피아노 교사의 주부 츠야코 사와구치 나카하라(Tsuyako (Sawaguchi) Nakahara)였다. 그녀에게는 쌍둥이 형제인 피터와 형의 아서가 있었다. 가족은 비교적 부유했고, 그녀는 백인이 많은 지역에서 자랐습니다. 어렸을 때부터 장로파 교회 에 다니며 일요일 학교에서 가르쳤다. 산페드로 고등학교 ( 영어판 ) 에 입학, 여학생으로서 최초의 학생회 임원이 되어, 학교 통신에 집필해, 테니스 팀에 참가했다. 1939년에 고등학교를 졸업하고, 콤프턴 단기대학 ( 영어판 ) 에 입학하여 영어, 저널리즘, 그리고 예술을 전공하고, 1941년에 졸업했다 [ 6 ] .

그녀의 생활은 대일본 제국 이 진주만 을 공격한 1941년 12월 7일(일본 시간 : 12월 8일)로 일변했다. 그녀가 교회에서 귀가한 직후에 연방수사국 (FBI)의 수사관이 국가의 안전을 위협할 위험이 있다고 아버지를 체포했다. 그는 몸이 약하고 병원에서 막 퇴원했다 [ 7 ] . FBI는 자택을 수색해 일본 해군의 함선 사진과 주미대사 노무라 요시사부로 를 포함한 중요한 일본인과의 교우에 의심을 보였다 [ 8 ] . 6주에 걸친 구류는 아버지의 병리를 악화시키고, 1942년 1월 20에 석방되었을 때에는 말할 수 없을 정도였다. 석방 다음날, 아버지는 사망했다 [ 6 ] .

아버지가 몰린 직후 미국 대통령 프랭클린 루즈벨트 는 대통령령 9066호 를 발했지만, 그것은 태평양 해안에 사는 약 12만명의 일본인을 강제 퇴거시켜 전미의 다른 수용소에 수용한다는 것이었다. 백합과 어머니와 형제는 산타 아니타 강제 수용소 의 개조된 마구간 에 몇 개월 '피난'한 후 아칸소주의 제롬 전쟁 이주 센터로 옮겨져 3년간 보냈다. 수용된 동안, 그녀는 나중에 남편이 되는, 미국의 2세 군인 빌 코우치야마를 만났다. 두 사람은 1946년에 결혼했다 [ 6 ] . 1948년에 뉴욕으로 옮겨 6명의 아이를 벌어 공영 주택에 12년간 살았다. 1960년에 코우치야마 부부는 뉴욕시의 하렘으로 이사하여 하렘보호협회와 인종 평등 회의 ( CORE ) 에 참가했다.

활동가로서

1963년 10월에 일에 항의한 약 600명의 소수민족 건설 작업원이 체포된 것에 대한 항의 중의 [ 9 ] [ 10 ] 마르콤 X 를 만난 것으로부터, 범아프리카주의 아프리카계 미국인 통일 기구 ( 영어판 ) 에 참가했다. 1965년 2월 21일, 뉴욕시 맨해튼 구의 워싱턴 하이츠 에 있는 오듀본 무용장 에서 습격되어 빈사의 말콤 X를 팔에 안고 있는 [ 11 ] 순간을 포착한 사진이 라이프 지에 게재되었다. [ 12 ]　자신에게 있어서의 말콤의 죽음의 의미를 1965년 3월 11일 발행 '뉴욕 일미'에 기고했다 [ 13 ] . 그 후도 많은 혁명적 내셔널리스트의 리더들과 친해지고, 그 중에는 『모택동어록』의 초판을 그녀에게 준 로버트 F 윌리엄스 ( 영어판 ) 도 있었다 [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] . 베트남 전쟁 중 이후 항의운동 속에서 자란 아시아계 미국인운동 ( 영어판 ) 의 급진적 지도자 중 한 명이 됐다. 동해안의 일본계인의 보상과 구제의 주도자로서, 백합과 빌은 제2차 세계대전 중에 강제 수용된 일본계 미국인을 위한 구제와 정부의 사죄 ( 영어판 ) 를 주장하고, 「 전시중의 시민의 이주와 수용에 관한 위원회 ( 영어판 )」를 뉴욕에 유치하는 캠페인의 선두에 있었다 . 또한 제2차 대전 중에 강제연행, 강제수용된 일본계 미국인을 위해 프랭클린 루즈벨트 대통령이 대통령령 9066호를 발령한 날을 기억하는 ‘ 추억의 날 ’ 위원회를 뉴욕에 설립했다. 로널드 레이건 대통령은 1988년 강제수용에서 생환한 일본계 미국인 한사람 한사람에게 2만 달러씩을 지급한다는 시민자유법에 서명한 뒤 아프리카계 미국인의 배상을 주장했다 [ 6 ] . 후년 코우치야마는 제2차 대전 중 일본계 미국인의 경험과 비슷한 현상으로 보이기 위해 미국에 사는 무슬림, 중동 및 남아시아 사람들에 대한 일면적이고 견고한 편견에 대한 항의 활동을 적극적으로 실시했다.

1971년 이슬람교 수니파 로 개종, 뉴욕주 스톰빌의 그린헤븐 감옥 ( 영어판 ) 에 있는 산콜레 모스크에 다녔고, 이맘 라슬 슬레이만 하에서 공부와 예배를 하게 되었다 [ 17 ] .

뉴욕시에서 이민 학생들에게 영어를 가르치고 노숙자 보호 시설에서 식사를 제공하는 자원 봉사를 실시했다 [ 18 ] . 데이비 알렌의 텔레비전 프로그램 시리즈 '쿨 우먼'(2001)에서 “내가 남기고 싶은 유산은 사람들이 벽이 아니라 다리를 가려고 하는 것”이라고 말했다 [ 19 ] .

지원 활동

'혼잡한 정치신조'의 여성으로서, 또한 경우에 따라서는 인종의 융합과 분리의 양쪽의 지원을 주려고 하는 '모순된 견해'를 가진 여성으로 말해졌다 [ 20 ] . 그녀는 모택동 과 호치민 모두를 칭찬했다 [ 21 ] .

페루의 모택동주의 게릴라 그룹인 센데로 루미노소 를 지원해 [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] , 페루에 파견단에 참가했지만, 그것은 미국의 모택동주의자의 혁명 공산당 ( 영어판 ) 이 조직한 것으로, 센데로 루미노소의 투옥된 리더인 아비마에르 구스만 에의 지원을 모으는 것이었다. “책을 읽을수록 페루에서의 혁명을 완전히 지원하게 되었다”고 말하고 있다 [ 21 ] .

1960년대 중반에 혁명적 행동운동 ( 영어판 ) 에 참가했는데 이는 도시 게릴라 무력행위를 위한 흑인 내셔널리스트 조직으로 말콤X, 마르크스, 레닌, 그리고 모택동 사상을 통합한 이데올로기를 구축하려는 흑인 해방운동의 첫 번째였다 . [ 25 ] 1968년에 그녀는 흑인 이외에서는 얼마 안되는 초대자의 한 명으로서 신아프리카 공화국 (RNA)에 초대되었지만, 그것은 미국 남부 에 흑인의 국가를 분리해 창설하려고 하는 운동이었다. 코우치야마는 참가하자마자 흑인국가를 분리하여 만들 필요성은 북부 도시에서의 공민권운동보다도 크다는 RNA에 찬동했다 [ 26 ] . 코우치야마가 RNA의 '시민'이 되고 나서, 그녀는 자신의 '노예의 이름'인 메리를 포기하고 백합만을 사용하기로 했다 [ 27 ] .

데이비드 원 지원위원회를 꾸준히 지원해 14년간 투쟁 끝에 감옥의 동료 살인죄에서 무죄를 이겼다. 그녀는 옥중의 원에게 편지를 쓰고, 자금을 모아, 면회에 나갔다 [ 28 ] .

정치범이나 FBI의 탄압의 희생자를 지원했다 [ 29 ] . 1981년에 필라델피아의 경찰 다니엘 포크너 ( 영어판 ) 를 살해한 죄로 1982년에 사형 선고된 아프리카계 미국인 활동가 무미아 압자마르 의 변호 활동을 했다 [ 30 ] . 또 그녀는 아프리카계 미국인 활동가로 이전에 흑인해방군 (BLA)의 멤버였던 아사타 샤클 ( 영어판 ) 의 친구이자 지원자로 [ 31 ] , 샤쿨은 미국 감옥에서 탈옥하고 쿠바 로 도망칠 때까지 뉴저지 주 경찰관의 일급 살인죄로 유죄 판결을 받았다. 샤쿨을 "여성의 말콤 [X]인가, 여성의 무미아 [압-자마르] 같다"고 말했다 [ 32 ] . 페미니스트의 시인인 마릴린 백 ( 영어판 ) 도 지원했지만 [ 33 ] , 백은 1979년의 샤쿨의 탈옥과 1981년의 Brink's robbery , 1983년의 미국 상원 폭파 사건 ( 영어판 ) 의 죄로 투옥되었다 [ 34 ] .

1977년, 푸에르토리코인 그룹에 참가해, 푸에르토리코인 독립 운동 ( 영어판 ) 에의 관심을 높이기 위해서 뉴욕의 자유의 여신상 을 점거했다. 코우치야마와 다른 활동가들은 살인 미수 혐의로 체포된 4명의 푸에르토 리코인 로리타 레브론 , 라파엘 캔슬 미란다 , 안드레스 피게로아 코르데로 , 그리고 어빙 플로레스 로드리게스 의 석방을 요구했다 [ 35 ] . 이 4명은 1954년 미국 의회 사당 습격 사건 ( 영어판 ) 에서 5명의 의원을 부상시켰다. 활동가들은 9시간에 걸쳐 여신상을 점거하고 경찰이 개입하자 평화적으로 퇴거했다. 지미 카터 대통령은 1979년에 그들 4명에게 은사를 주었다.

일본 적군 의 멤버인 기쿠무라 유우 도 지원했지만 [ 36 ] 그는 1986년 암스테르담 스키폴 공항 에서 짐에 폭탄을 넣고 있던 곳을 체포되어 퇴역군인 관리국 빌딩에 있는 미국 해군 모집소를 폭파하려는 죄로 유죄 판결을 받았다. 코우치야마는 키쿠무라의 30년이라는 형기가 그의 정치 활동에 동기 부여되고 있다고 느끼고 있었다 [ 28 ] .

1988년, 제19회 벤셀레모스 대에 참가해, 149명의 북미 대원의 일원으로서 쿠바 를 방문했다. 일행은 2주간에 걸쳐 도시와 지방을 버스로 둘러싸고, 사람들의 생활과 문화를 직접 관찰했다. 미국에서 도망쳐 온 아사타 샤쿨을 만날 수도 있었다 [ 37 ] .

1993년 혁명공산당(RCP)과 영국의 국제긴급문제위원회의 국제파견단의 일원으로 페루를 방문하여 분쟁이 계속되는 국정을 둘러보았다 [ 38 ] .

논쟁

2001년 미국 동시다발 테러사건 에 이어 미국의 행동에 대해 " 대테러전쟁 의 골은 석유와 연료 획득만이 아니다. 미국은 세계를 정복하려고 하고 있다 . 세계 사람들에게 있어서 주요 테러리스트이며 주요 적은 미국 정부라는 것을 이해하는 것이 중요하다 " 고 말했다 .

2003년 인터뷰에서 “ 오사마 빈 라덴 은 내가 존경한 인물 중 한 명이다. 나를 위해 그는 말콤 X, 최게발라 , 패트리스 루문바 , 피델 카스트로 … 테고리에 들어갑니다. 나는 빈 라덴을 위해 이슬람교에 감사합니다 . 21 ] [ 40 ] .

95세의 생일에 해당하는 2016년 5월 19일, 미국판 Google의 로고 에 그녀는 등장했지만, 오사마 빈 라덴이나 알카이다 그리고 센데로 루미노소의 그룹에 대한 과거의 발언을 둘러싸고 논쟁을 일으켰다.

현창

2005년 「1000명의 피스 우먼」프로젝트에 의해, 노벨 평화상 에 추천된 1,000명의 여성의 1명이었다 [ 10 ] [ 41 ] .

2010 년　캘리포니아 주립 대학 이스트 베이 학교 에서 명예 박사 학위를 수여되었다 [ 18 ] .

2014년 6월 6일 백악관 은 "아시아계 미국인과 태평양 제도인 커뮤니티뿐만 아니라 모든 유색 인종 커뮤니티를 위해 사회 정의의 실현에 인생을 바쳤다"며 코우치야마를 웹사이트상에서 기념했다 [ 42 ] .

2014년 스미소니언 협회 아시아 태평양 아메리칸 센터 ( 영어판 ) 는 '민족의 영웅: 풀뿌리 예술을 통한 백합 꽁치야마의 추억'을 기획하고 '칭찬'의 특징을 지닌 디지털 전시회를 가졌다 [ 43 ] [ 44 ] .

2016년 5월 19일, 미국판 Google의 로고는 코우치야마의 탄생 95년을 기념했지만 [ 45 ] , 그것은 코우치야마와 Google에 대한 칭찬 [ 46 ] [ 47 ] 과 비판 [ 21 ] [ 48 ] [ 49 ] 양쪽을 불러 일으켰 습니다 . (R-Penn.)은 회사에 공개 사과를 요구했다 [ 50 ] .

2019년 3월 ' 여성사월간 '과 '국제여성의 권리'에 맞춰 퍼블릭 아트 프로젝트 [ 51 ] 가 미시간주 그랜드래 피즈 시내에서 개최되었다. 여기에는 코우치야마가 등장하는 2015년의 아동서 「Rad American Women A-Z」( Kate Schatz著, Miriam Klein Stahl 삽화)가 포함되어 있었다.

가족

아버지

이와테현 토노무라 출신인 나카 하라 마사이치에서 10대 후반인 1907년경에 미국, 로스앤젤레스 에서 선어 도매상을 창업했다. 미국 해군과 일본 상선에 신선한 생선, 고기, 야채를 팔고 성공을 거두고, 일치 결혼을 위해 일시 ​​귀국했다. 어머니는 후쿠시마현 아이즈와카마츠시 출신의 사와구치 광택으로, 도쿄에 있는 영어 전문학교(후의 쓰다학원대학 )를 나와 후쿠시마현의 여학교에서 영어를 가르치고 있었다. 그 학교의 교장이 쇼이치의 할아버지로 손자의 아내로서 광택에 시라바네의 화살을 세웠다. 제1차 대전 중의 1917년에 두 사람은 결혼해, 미국에 이민, 로스앤젤레스의 해안가에 있는 산페드로 에 신거를 짓았다. 1918년에는 장남의 아서가, 1921년에는 백합과 쌍둥이의 차남 피터가 태어나, 일가는 침착한 생활을 영위하고 있었다 [ 52 ] .

남편 빌딩

1921년 5월 10일, 마사요시 윌리엄 코치야마로 워싱턴 DC 에서 태어났다. 아버지는 자산가의 아들 가와치야마 유타카에서 10대 때 혼자 영국을 거쳐 미국, 워싱턴 DC에서 일본 국적 여성과의 사이에 3명의 아이를 낳았다. 장녀와 차남은 스페인 감기 로 목숨을 잃었지만 장남 마사요시는 살아남았다. 어머니를 어릴 때 죽었기 때문에 아버지는 뉴욕의 고아원에 그를 맡기고 일을 했다. 마사요시는 뉴욕 고등학교를 나와 캘리포니아에서 일을 했지만, 1942년에 다른 일본인과 함께 수용소 로 보내졌다. 샌프란시스코에서 유타주 토파즈 수용소로 옮겨 1년을 보낸 후, 지원해 육군에 입대했을 때, 윌리엄, 축소해 빌을 자칭하게 되었다 [ 53 ] .

1946년에 빌과 백합은 결혼. 1947년에 빌리, 1949년에 오디, 1952년에 롤리(애칭 아이치), 1955년에 에디, 1957년에 지미, 1959년에 토미의 6명의 아이가 태어났다. 아이들은 공영단지에서 결성된 보이스카우트나 걸스카우트에 들어가 장로파 교회의 일요일 학교에 다녔다. 일가에는 많은 친구나 지원자가 방문해, 그 안에서 아이들은 자라 갔다 [ 54 ] . 장남 빌리는 자동차 사고로 한쪽 다리를 잃었기 때문에 수년 후인 1975년 자살했다. 차녀 아이치는 싱글 마더였지만, 23세 때 활동가인 알카마르 던컨과 아는 의기투합했다. 14년 후인 1989년, 딸 아케미가 18세 때 아이치와 함께 자동차 사고에 맞서, 아케미는 살아났지만 아이치는 목숨을 잃었다 [ 55 ] . 오랜 병을 앓고 있던 알카말은 그 5개월 후인 1990년 4월 8일에 사망했다 [ 56 ] . 남편의 건물은 1993년 10월 25일에 죽었다 [ 57 ] .

자전

2004년 자전 'Passing it on  : a memoir'를 UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press에서 출판 [ 58 ] [ 59 ] , 가족에 접한 10장과 활동가로서의 궤적을 추적한 7장의 총 17장으로 이루어져, 권말에 자료 18점이 부록으로 첨부 Kochiyama-Sardinha)가 들고있다 [ 60 ] . 2010년에는 아야류사로 부터 자전의 일본어 번역 『유리 코치야마 회고록  : 일본계 미국인 여성 인종·차별·연대를 계승한다”가 출판되었지만 [ 61 ] [ 62 ] , 원서에 있던 가족에 관한 3장과 권말 자료가 생략되어, 전14장이 되고 있다.

죽음

1999년 가족의 요청으로 뉴욕에서 캘리포니아주 오클랜드 로 이주하고 [ 63 ] , 그 땅에서 2014년 6월 1일, 93세로 사망했다 [ 64 ] .

참고문헌

출처

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  36.  릴리 코치야마, p195-198
  37.  백합 코치 야마, p211-219
  38.  백합 코치 야마, p221-229
  39.  Fujino 2005 , p.  310.
  40.  “ Yuri Kochiyama: On War, Imperialism, Osama bin Laden, and Black-Asian Politics ”. The Objector: A Magazine of Conscience and Resistance . Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors (2003년). 2003년 10월 11일 시점의 원본에서 보관 2020년 11월 24일에 확인함.
  41.  “ The initiative: 1000 PeaceWomen ”. PeaceWomen Across the Globe. 2020년 11월 24일에 확인함.
  42.  Ahuja, Kiran (2014년 6월 6일). “ Honoring the Legacy of Yuri Kochiyama ”. White House . 2020년 11월 24일에 확인함.
  43.  Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund [@aaldef] ( June 5, 2014). “ .@SmithsonianAPA: 14 artists pay tribute to #YuriKochiyama ” .
  44.  " Folk Hero: Remembering Yuri Kochiyama Through Grassroots Art ". Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center . Accessed November 24, 2020.
  45.  “ Yuri Kochiyama's 95th Birthday ”. Google 검색 (2016년 5월 19일). 2020년 11월 24일에 확인함.
  46.  Cavna, Michael (2016년 5월 19일). “Yuri Kochiyama: Today's fierce Google Doodle salutes former Korean internee's lifetime of activism” . The Washington Post 2026년 4월 12일에 확인.
  47.  Hinckley, Story (2016년 5월 19일). “Yuri Kochiyama: a nisei ahead of her time” . 그리스도인 과학 모니터 2026년 4월 12일에 확인함.
  48.  Tobin, Jonathan (2016년 5월 20일). “Hating America at Google” . Commentary 2020년 11월 24일에 확인함.
  49.  Hemingway, Mark (2016년 5월 20일). “Google, Smithsonian Honor Activist Who Praised Bin Laden, Mao, Terrorists ” . 위클리 스탠다드
  50.  Trujillo, Mario (2016년 5월 20일). “GOP senator slams Google for tribute to controversial civil rights figure” . The Hill 2020년 11월 24일에 확인함.
  51.  public art project 2020년 11월 24일에 확인함.
  52.  백합 코치 야마, p17-21
  53.  백합 코치 야마, p55-61
  54.  백합 코치 야마, p71-80
  55.  릴리 코치야마, p137-140
  56.  백합 코치 야마, p152
  57.  백합 코치 야마, p67
  58.  “ Yuri Kochiyama: 'Passing It On' ” (영어). NPR.org . 2020년 11월 24일에 확인함.
  59.  Worldcat 2020년 11월 24일에 확인함
  60.  Passing it on  : a memoir by Yuri Nakahara Kochiyama  ; edited by Marjorie Lee, Akemi Kochiyama-Sardinha, and Audee Kochiyama-Holman. UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press, c2004
  61.  NDL 2020년 12월 2일에 확인함
  62.  彩流社2020년 12월 2일에 확인함.
  63.  백합 코치 야마, p256
  64.  Japanese-American Activist Who Helped Win Reparations, Witnessed Malcolm X Shooting Dies at 93, Slate.com, June 4, 2014. Retrieved February 1, 2020 2020년 11월 24일에 확인함.

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