Oppenheimer (/ˈɒpənhaɪmər/ OP-ən-hy-mər) is a 2023 epic biographical thriller film^[5] written and directed by Christopher Nolan. Based on the 2005 biography American Prometheus by Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, the film chronicles the career of American theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer.

The story predominantly focuses on

Oppenheimer's studies,
his direction of the Manhattan Project during World War II, and
his eventual fall from grace due to his 1954 security hearing.

The film stars Cillian Murphy as the title character, Emily Blunt as his wife, "Kitty", Matt Damon as head of the Manhattan Project Leslie Groves, Robert Downey Jr. as U.S. Atomic Energy Commission member Lewis Strauss, and Florence Pugh as Communist Party USA member Jean Tatlock. The ensemble supporting cast includes Josh Hartnett, Casey Affleck, Rami Malek, and Kenneth Branagh.

The film was announced in September 2021 after Universal Pictures won a bidding war for Nolan's screenplay, following Nolan's conflict with longtime distributor Warner Bros. Murphy was the first cast member to sign on the following month, with the rest of the cast joining between November 2021 and April 2022. Pre-production was under way by January 2022, and filming took place from February to May. Oppenheimer was filmed in a combination of IMAX 65 mm and 65 mm large-format film, including, for the first time in history, sections in IMAX black-and-white film photography. Like his previous works, Nolan used extensive practical effects and minimal computer-generated imagery. Oppenheimer is Nolan's first film to receive an R-rating in the United States since Insomnia in 2002.

Oppenheimer premiered at Le Grand Rex in Paris on July 11, 2023, and was theatrically released in the United States and United Kingdom on July 21 by Universal. Its simultaneous release with Warner Bros.' Barbie led to the "Barbenheimer" cultural phenomenon, which encouraged audiences to see both films as a double feature. Oppenheimer has grossed over $731 million worldwide on a $100 million production budget, making it the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2023, the highest-grossing World War II-related film,^[6] and the fifth highest-grossing R-rated film of all time.^[7] It received critical acclaim, with particular praise for the cast performances, screenplay, and visuals.

Plot

In 1926, 22-year-old doctoral student J. Robert Oppenheimer studies under experimental physicist Patrick Blackett at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge. He is homesick and suffers from anxiety while struggling with the required lab work.

Oppenheimer, upset with the demanding Blackett, leaves him a poison-laced apple but retrieves it from the hands of visiting scientist Niels Bohr, who is impressed enough by his intellect to recommend that he should instead study theoretical physics in Germany, where Oppenheimer completes his PhD. He later meets theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg at a conference in Switzerland.

Oppenheimer returns to the United States, wanting to expand quantum physics research there. He begins teaching at the University of California, Berkeley and the California Institute of Technology, starting with one student. He meets his future wife, Katherine "Kitty" Puening, a biologist and ex-communist, and also has an intermittent affair with Jean Tatlock, a member of the Communist Party USA.

In 1938, Nazi Germany's progress in nuclear fission research spurs Oppenheimer and his colleagues to replicate their results.

In 1942, amid World War II, U.S. Army General Leslie Groves recruits Oppenheimer to lead the Manhattan Project to develop an atomic bomb after he gives assurances that he has no communist sympathies.

Oppenheimer, who is Jewish, is particularly driven by the Nazis' potentially completing their nuclear weapons program, headed by Heisenberg. He assembles a scientific team including Edward Teller and Isidor Isaac Rabi in Los Alamos, New Mexico, and also collaborates with scientists Enrico Fermi and David L. Hill. As the work continues, Oppenheimer learns of Tatlock's suicide.

After Germany surrenders, some project scientists question the bomb's relevance, while Oppenheimer believes using it will quickly end the ongoing war in the Pacific, saving Allied lives. However, he and Albert Einstein had discussed the small possibility that an atomic detonation could trigger an atmospheric chain reaction and destroy the world.

The Trinity test is successful and President Harry S. Truman orders Hiroshima and Nagasaki to be bombed, forcing Japan's surrender.

Oppenheimer is thrust into the public eye as the "father of the atomic bomb", but the immense destruction and mass fatalities haunt him. He urges Truman to restrict further nuclear weapon development, which Truman dismisses.

As an advisor to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Oppenheimer advocates against further nuclear research, especially the hydrogen bomb proposed by Edward Teller. His stance becomes a point of contention amid the tense Cold War with the Soviet Union.

AEC Chairman Lewis Strauss resents Oppenheimer after he dismissed his concerns about exporting radioisotopes, publicly humiliating him, and for recommending arms talks with the Soviet Union.

At a hearing intended to eliminate Oppenheimer's political influence, Teller and other associates betray him while Strauss exploits Oppenheimer's past associations with Communist Party members. Despite allies testifying in his defense, Oppenheimer's security clearance is revoked, damaging his public image and neutralizing his policy influence.

At Strauss's later Senate confirmation hearing for Secretary of Commerce, Hill testifies about Strauss's personal motives in engineering Oppenheimer's downfall. The U.S. Senate votes against his nomination. In 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson presents Oppenheimer with the Enrico Fermi Award as a gesture of political rehabilitation.

A flashback shows a conversation between Einstein and Oppenheimer in which Strauss erroneously believed Oppenheimer denigrated him, revealing that he had actually expressed his somber belief that he had indeed started a chain reaction that would destroy the world.

Cast

Cillian Murphy plays J. Robert Oppenheimer.

Cillian Murphy as J. Robert Oppenheimer, a theoretical physicist and director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory.^[8]
Emily Blunt as Katherine "Kitty" Oppenheimer, Robert Oppenheimer's wife and a former Communist Party USA member.^[9]
Matt Damon as Gen. Leslie Groves, a USACE officer and director of the Manhattan Project.^[10]
Robert Downey Jr. as Lewis Strauss, a high-ranking member of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.^[10]
Florence Pugh as Jean Tatlock, a Communist Party USA member and Robert Oppenheimer's romantic interest.^[11]
Josh Hartnett as Ernest Lawrence, a Nobel-winning nuclear physicist who worked with Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley.^[12]^[13]
Casey Affleck as Boris Pash, a U.S. Army military intelligence officer and commander of the Alsos Mission.^[14]
Rami Malek as David L. Hill, a nuclear physicist at the Met Lab, who helped to create the Chicago Pile.^[11]
Kenneth Branagh as Niels Bohr, a Nobel-winning physicist, philosopher and Oppenheimer's personal idol.^[15]
Benny Safdie as Edward Teller, a theoretical physicist known for being the "father of the hydrogen bomb."^[11]
Jason Clarke as Roger Robb, a U.S circuit judge who was a special counsel at Oppenheimer’s security hearing.^[16]
Dylan Arnold as Frank Oppenheimer, Robert’s younger brother and a particle physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project.^[17]
Tom Conti as Albert Einstein, a theoretical physicist known for developing the theory of relativity.^[18]
James D'Arcy as Patrick Blackett, Oppenheimer’s college professor at Cambridge University.^[19]
David Dastmalchian as William L. Borden, a lawyer and executive director of the JCAE.^[20]
Dane DeHaan as Maj Gen. Kenneth Nichols, a U.S Army officer and the deputy district engineer of the Manhattan Project.^[21]
Alden Ehrenreich as a Senate aide to Lewis Strauss, a fictional character who is an aide during Strauss’ nomination for United States Secretary of Commerce.^[22]^[23]
Tony Goldwyn as Gordon Gray, a government official and chairman of the committee deciding the revoking of Oppenheimer security clearance.^[24]
Jefferson Hall as Haakon Chevalier, a Berkeley professor who became friends with Oppenheimer at university.^[25]^[26]
David Krumholtz as Isidor Isaac Rabi, a Nobel Prize-winning physicist who worked as a consultant on the Manhattan Project.^[22]
Matthew Modine as Vannevar Bush, head of the Office of Scientific Research and Development.^[27]
Gustaf Skarsgård as Hans Bethe, a German-American theoretical physicist and the head of the Theoretical Division at Los Alamos.^[28]
Michael Angarano as Robert Serber, a physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project.^[12]
Jack Quaid as Richard Feynman, a theoretical physicist who worked in the Theoretical Division at Los Alamos.^[29]
Josh Peck as Kenneth Bainbridge, a physicist who was the director of the Manhattan Project’s Trinity nuclear test.^[30]
Olivia Thirlby as Lilli Hornig, a Czech-American scientist who worked on the Manhattan Project.^[31]
Christopher Denham as Klaus Fuchs, a German-born physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project.^[32]
David Rysdahl as Donald Hornig, a chemist who worked on the firing unit at Los Alamos.^[33]
Louise Lombard as Ruth Tolman, a psychologist close to Oppenheimer during the development of the atomic bomb.^[34]
Harrison Gilbertson as Philip Morrison, a physics professor who worked on the Manhattan Project.^[35]
Trond Fausa Aurvåg as George Kistiakowsky, a Harvard professor who took part in the Manhattan Project^[36]
Olli Haaskivi as Edward Condon, a nuclear physicist who helped with the development of radar and briefly took part in the Manhattan Project.^[17]
Devon Bostick as Seth Neddermeyer, a physicist who discovered the muon and advocated for the implosion-type nuclear weapon used in the Trinity Test.^[37]
Macon Blair as Lloyd K. Garrison, a lawyer who helped to represent Oppenheimer at his security clearance hearing.^[38]
Kurt Koehler as Thomas A. Morgan, an industrialist and former chairman of the board of the Sperry Corporation who was one of the panel members at Oppenheimer’s security clearance hearing.^[39]^[40]
Josh Zuckerman as Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz, a physicist who became Oppenheimer’s protégé at Berkeley.^[41]
Alex Wolff as Luis Walter Alvarez, a physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project.^[42]
Guy Burnet as George Eltenton, a chemical engineer in the US with ties to the Soviet Union.^[43]
Emma Dumont as Jackie Oppenheimer, Frank’s wife and Robert’s sister-in-law.^[35]
Jack Cutmore-Scott as Security Officer Lyall Johnson, a security officer at Berkeley who worked at the Manhattan Project.^[38]
Scott Grimes as Counsel to Lewis Strauss^[32]
Gary Oldman as Harry S. Truman, the 33rd President of the United States.^[44]
Hap Lawrence as Lyndon B. Johnson, the 36th President of the United States.^[38]
Harry Groener as Sen. Gale W. McGee^[38]
Pat Skipper as Secretary of State James F. Byrnes^[38]
Gregory Jbara as Chairman Warren Magnuson^[38]
Tim DeKay as Sen. John Pastore^[38]
James Remar as Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of War under President Truman.^[38]
Danny Deferrari as Enrico Fermi, a physicist and creator of the Chicago Pile.^[43]
Máté Haumann as Leo Szilard, a Hungarian physicist to realize that a nuclear chain reaction could be created.^[45]
Matthias Schweighöfer as Werner Heisenberg, a German Nobel Prize-winning physicist who worked in the country’s nuclear weapons program during World War II.^[46]^[47]
James Urbaniak as Kurt Gödel, a mathematician known for his theorems that revolutionized mathematics and had far-reaching implications for philosophy and computer science.^[38]
Rory Keane as Hartland Snyder, a physicist, who collaborated with Oppenheimer to calculate the gravitational collapse of a dust particle sphere.^[48]
John Gowans as Ward V. Evans, who served as one of the panel members at Oppenheimer’s security clearance hearing.^[48]
Jessica Erin Martin as Charlotte Serber, head technical librarian at Los Alamos.^[49]
Ronald Auguste as J. Ernest Wilkins Jr., a physicist who worked with Oppenheimer on the Manhattan Project.^[49]
Will Roberts as George C. Marshall, a United States general who served as a key figure in the country's atomic weapons program.^[49]

Production

Development

Following the 2005 publication of the biography American Prometheus by Bird and Sherwin, director Sam Mendes had been interested in adapting the book into a film. After that project failed to materialize, and the book was optioned by various filmmakers over the next 15 years, the authors grew pessimistic about seeing their work adapted to the screen. In 2015, J. David Wargo optioned the book, then commissioned and rejected several scripts. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Wargo flew to Hollywood to meet with actor James Woods, who set up a meeting with Charles Roven, a producer for various Christopher Nolan films, and in turn, Roven gave a copy of the book to Nolan. Both Wargo and Woods are executive producers of the film.^[50]

Nolan had long desired to make a film about Oppenheimer, even prior to reading American Prometheus.^[51] In 2019, towards the end of production on Nolan's science-fiction film Tenet (2020), star Robert Pattinson gave the director a book of Oppenheimer's speeches. According to Nolan, the speeches showed the physicist "wrestling with the implications ... of what's happened and what [he's] done." Nolan wanted to depict "what it would have been like to be Oppenheimer in those moments" in contrast to Tenet, which employs time travel to curb a potential weapon of mass destruction.^[52]^[2]

In December 2020, Warner Bros. Pictures announced plans to give its 2021 films simultaneous releases in theaters and on HBO Max, citing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the film industry. Nolan, who had partnered with the studio on each one of his films starting with Insomnia (2002), was outraged with the decision as he had been a proponent of film theaters.^[53] In January 2021, media reports mentioned the possibility that Nolan's next film could be the first not to be financed or distributed by Warner Bros.^[54] By mid-2021, the filmmaker had left Warner Bros. and was meeting with other studios to develop his new project.^[2] Nolan had previously supported the studio's decision to give Wonder Woman 1984 (2020) a simultaneous release, stating that he perceived that situation to have been handled properly, but said he had been excluded from any discussions regarding the postponed release of Tenet.^[55]^[56]

In September 2021, it was announced that Nolan would write and direct a biographical film set during World War II about Oppenheimer, with Cillian Murphy in negotiations to star.^[57]^[58] Due to his strained relationship with Warner Bros., Nolan approached multiple studios for the project, including Sony Pictures, Universal Pictures, Paramount Pictures, and Apple Studios.^[59]^[60] According to insiders, Paramount was ruled out early in the process in relation to the replacement of CEO and chairman Jim Gianopulos with Brian Robbins, an advocate for increased streaming-service releases.^[60] Nolan had connections to Donna Langley, the chairman and chief content officer of the NBCUniversal studio group, who agreed with his stance in favor of traditional film exhibition in theaters. As such, Universal agreed to finance and distribute Oppenheimer, with production set to begin in the first quarter of 2022.^[61] The studio also agreed to Nolan's terms, which included a production budget of $100 million, an equal marketing budget, an exclusive theatrical window ranging from 90 to 120 days, 20 percent of the film's first-dollar gross, and a three-week period both before and after the film's release in which Universal could not release another new film.^[60]^[2]

Writing

Oppenheimer is the first screenplay written by Nolan in the first person, as he wanted the narrative to be conveyed from Oppenheimer's perspective. He described the "texture" of the film being "how the personal interacts with the historic and the geopolitical" with the intention of making it a cautionary tale.^[51]^[62]^[63] He began developing the script after he completed Tenet and wrote it in only a few months; he had already been thinking about making a film about Oppenheimer for over 20 years.^[51] A major plot element is Oppenheimer's response to the long-term consequences of his actions. Nolan wished to explore the phenomenon of delayed reactions, as he felt people are not "necessarily confronted with the strongest or worst elements of [their actions] in the moment".^[64] He also chose to alternate between scenes in color and black-and-white to convey the story from both subjective and objective perspectives, respectively,^[65] with most of Oppenheimer's view shown via the former, while the latter depicts a "more objective view of his story from a different character's point of view".^[66]^[64] Wanting to make the film as subjective as possible, the production team decided to include visions of Oppenheimer's conceptions of the quantum world and waves of energy.^[67] Nolan noted that Oppenheimer never publicly apologized for his role in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but still desired to portray Oppenheimer as feeling genuine guilt for his actions, believing this to be accurate.^[68]

I think of any character I've dealt with, Oppenheimer is by far the most ambiguous and paradoxical. Which, given that I've made three Batman films, is saying a lot.

— Christopher Nolan, Total Film^[69]

Nolan began by trying to find the "thread that connected the quantum realm, the vibration of energy, and Oppenheimer's own personal journey" and sought to portray the difficulties in his life, particularly regarding his sex life.^[52] As such, Nolan wanted to candidly portray his affair with Jean Tatlock. He also wanted to explore Tatlock's influence on Oppenheimer's life, since she was a Communist, which had "enormous ramifications for [Oppenheimer's] later life and his ultimate fate".^[70] Nolan also sought to explore the relationship between Oppenheimer and Admiral Lewis Strauss, former chair of the Atomic Energy Commission, having been inspired by the relationship between Mozart and Antonio Salieri as depicted in Amadeus (1984).^[64]

Another critical moment of the film was the meeting in which President Harry S. Truman called Oppenheimer a "crybaby". Nolan wanted to convey the scene from Oppenheimer's perspective and felt it was a "massive moment of disillusion, a huge turning point [for Oppenheimer] in his approach to trying to deal with the consequences of what he'd been involved with", while also underscoring that it is a "huge shift in perception about the reality of Oppenheimer's perception".^[51] He wanted to execute a quick tonal shift after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, desiring to go from the "highest triumphalism, the highest high, to the lowest low in the shortest amount of screen time possible".^[63] For the ending, Nolan chose to make it intentionally vague to be open to interpretation and refrained from being didactic or conveying specific messages in his work. However, he did have the intention to have a "strong set of troubling reverberations at the end".^[68]

Nolan first became aware of Oppenheimer as a youth, after hearing the lyric "How can I save my little boy from Oppenheimer's deadly toy?" in the Sting song "Russians" (1985).^[64] He was also inspired by his fears of nuclear holocaust throughout childhood, as he lived during the era of Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) and the anti-nuclear protests in RAF Greenham Common. He felt that "while our relationship with that [nuclear] fear has ebbed and flowed with time, the threat itself never actually went away", and felt the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine had caused a resurgence of nuclear anxiety.^[52] Nolan had also penned a script for a biographic film on Howard Hughes approximately during the time of production of Martin Scorsese's The Aviator (2004), which had given him insight on how to write a script regarding a person's life.^[51] Emily Blunt described the Oppenheimer script as "emotional" and resembling that of a thriller, while also remarking that Nolan had "Trojan-Horsed a biopic into a thriller".^[69]

Casting

Oppenheimer marks the sixth collaboration between Nolan and Murphy, and the first starring Murphy as the lead. To prepare for the role, the actor did what he summarized as "an awful lot of reading" on Oppenheimer's life and had also been inspired by David Bowie's appearance in the 1970s.^[71]^[8]^[64] Nolan called Murphy one day to ask him to play the part, and Murphy enthusiastically accepted and was excited to play a lead role in a Nolan film. Afterward, Nolan flew to Dublin to meet with Murphy, who read the script in Nolan's hotel room.^[72] Murphy lost an undisclosed amount of weight for the role in order to better match the real-life Oppenheimer's gaunt appearance.^[73] Nolan also set up a telephone call between Murphy and Nobel laureate Kip Thorne, who had previously worked with Nolan on Interstellar (2014).^[51] As a graduate student, Thorne had attended some of Oppenheimer's seminars, and explained to Murphy his experience with Oppenheimer's gift for facilitating group discussions of difficult scientific concepts.^[51]

The casting process was so secretive that some cast members did not know which role they would be playing until they signed on.^[42] Robert Downey Jr., Matt Damon, and Emily Blunt took pay cuts to work on the film, earning $4 million each in lieu of their usual $10–20 million upfront salary.^[74] Downey went to Nolan's house to read the script, which was printed in black on red paper.^[75] Downey described Oppenheimer as "the best film" in which he has appeared to date.^[76] Blunt met Nolan in Los Angeles and, when she was offered the role of Katherine "Kitty" Oppenheimer, she enthusiastically accepted; she also contacted Murphy to get an expectation of what working with Nolan would be like.^[75] Damon – who had previously worked with Nolan on Interstellar – was taking a break from acting as a result of negotiations with his wife in couples therapy, but signed on to Oppenheimer as he had reserved one exception: if Nolan offered him a role in a film.^[77] Nolan cast writer-director Benny Safdie as physicist Edward Teller after asking director Paul Thomas Anderson about his experience directing Safdie in Licorice Pizza (2021).^[78] Safdie had worked alongside a nuclear physicist at Columbia University while in high school.^[64]

The film also marks the first time in many years that Nolan did not cast Michael Caine, who had appeared in every Nolan film since Batman Begins (2005). When asked about Caine's absence from the film, Nolan stated, "He's with us in spirit, but not an actual actor. No, no. He wasn't able to join us for this one. But he's always with us in spirit, and I've had the most wonderful collaboration with him over the years."^[79]^[80]

Filming

Filming took place at the University of California, Berkeley in May 2022.

Pre-production had begun by January 2022 in New Mexico, where a two-day casting call took place in Santa Fe and Los Alamos for people to audition to play local residents, military personnel, and scientists.^[81]^[82] Another casting call was held in February.^[83]

Principal photography began on February 28, 2022, at Ghost Ranch in New Mexico,^[84] and lasted for 57 days with Hoyte van Hoytema serving as cinematographer.^[73]^[22] Gary Oldman said he would be on set for a day in May for "one scene, a page and a half".^[44] Nolan filmed his eldest child, his daughter Flora, in a scene in which she played a young woman disintegrated in a nuclear explosion. It appears in the film as one of Oppenheimer's visions, in which Nolan intended to show "that if you create the ultimate destructive power, it will also destroy those who are near and dear to you".^[52]

The film used a combination of IMAX 65 mm and 65 mm large-format film.^[8] It is also the first film to shoot sections on IMAX black-and-white photographic film, which Kodak created and FotoKem developed specifically for the film.^[85]^[86] In the second week of April, filming took place on location at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.^[87] Filming also occurred in California,^[31] primarily around the campus of the University of California, Berkeley.^[88]

During a 2021 research trip, Nolan discovered that Los Alamos had drastically changed from its 1940s appearance and could not be used for exterior shots of the town; for example, the town's equivalent of a Main Street has a Starbucks.^[84] Instead, the production team constructed a version of 1940s-era Los Alamos on top of a similar plateau at Ghost Ranch.^[84] It took three months to build the set, which was used for only six shooting days.^[84] The production also shot some scenes on location in the real town of Los Alamos starting on March 8, 2022.^[84] Many scenes in the film take place in academic lecture halls; to save time and money, the production team decided against attempting to recreate those halls as sets at Ghost Ranch, and instead shot them inside a historic Women's Army Corps dormitory in Los Alamos.^[84] Scenes were also filmed in Oppenheimer's original cabin in Los Alamos, which had been restored. Kai Bird visited the set and was impressed by Murphy's performance as Oppenheimer during filming.^[89]

Filming involved the use of real explosives to recreate the Trinity nuclear test, forgoing the use of computer-generated graphics.^[90] When this news first broke online, many fans (aware of Nolan's famous preference for in-camera practical effects) thought it meant he had set off a real atomic bomb.^[2] Nolan later remarked that it was both "flattering" and "scary" that his fans would think that of him.^[2] The production team was able to obtain government permission to film at White Sands Missile Range, but only at highly inconvenient hours, and therefore chose to film the scene elsewhere in the New Mexico desert.^[2] The production filmed the Trinity test scenes in Belen, New Mexico, with Murphy climbing a 100-foot steel tower, a replica of the original site used in the Manhattan Project, in rough weather.^[2] A special set was built in which gasoline, propane, aluminum powder, and magnesium were used to create the explosive effect.^[52] Although they used miniatures for the practical effect, the film's special effects supervisor Scott R. Fisher referred to them as "big-atures", since the special effects team had tried to build the models as physically large as possible. To make the models look closer to their intended real-life size, the team used forced perspective.^[91]^[92] Visualizations of the interactions between atoms, molecules and energy waves, as well as the depiction of stars, black holes and supernovas, were also achieved through practical methods. Nolan claimed the film contains no computer-generated effects.^[93] Filming wrapped in May 2022.^[94]

Post-production

During post-production, editing was completed by Jennifer Lame, who had previously edited Tenet.^[8] While inspecting the footage during editing, Nolan and Lame had performed "character passes" in which they made sure that all the characters were properly displayed due to the film having a faster pace than most traditional blockbusters.^[64] Visual effects were handled by DNEG, which produced more than 100 VFX shots from more than 400 practically shot elements,^[95] marking their eighth collaboration with Nolan. Andrew Jackson was the visual effects supervisor.^[96] Digital compositing was used for the Trinity scene to add multi-layers to the explosion which was shot in a multifaceted viewpoint.^[97]

Music

Ludwig Göransson composed the score for the film, after doing so for Nolan's previous film, Tenet.^[8] Göransson's score was featured in a trailer for the film on May 8, 2023.^[98] It was also featured in the Universal Pictures exclusive five-minute Opening Look on July 13.^[99]^[100] Nolan had advised him to use the violin for Oppenheimer's central theme in the film, with Göransson remarking that he had felt that it could go from "the most romantic, beautiful tone in a split second to neurotic and heart wrenching, horror sounds."^[64]

Release

Marketing

Oppenheimer's teaser trailer was released on July 28, 2022, featuring a live countdown to 5:29 a.m. (MST) on July 16, 2023, the 78th anniversary of the first detonation of an atomic weapon; it premiered in screenings of Nope before being posted online on Universal's social media profiles.^[101] Empire commented that it is exemplary of Nolan's style: "heady, brooding stuff with a real sense of weight".^[102] in December 2022, two trailers for the film premiered in front of Avatar: The Way of Water, with one being exclusive to IMAX theaters and the other being shown in all other formats. The latter was eventually released online.^[103]^[104] In May 2023, an official main trailer debuted during preview screenings of Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. It was subsequently released to the public on May 8, 2023, alongside a theatrical release poster.^[105]

Theatrical release

Oppenheimer had its world premiere at Le Grand Rex in Paris on July 11, 2023,^[106] followed by the British premiere at Odeon Luxe Leicester Square in London on July 13,^[107] and the American premiere at AMC Loews Lincoln Square in New York City on July 17.^[108] Both the London and the New York premieres were affected by the ongoing SAG-AFTRA strike, as some actors left the London premiere early,^[107] and Universal Pictures canceled the red carpet event for the New York premiere.^[108] SAG-AFTRA President Fran Drescher later claimed the studios "duped" the guild into accepting a twelve-day-extension for negotiations to continue promoting summer films like Oppenheimer.^[109] Oppenheimer was released theatrically on July 21, 2023, by Universal Pictures.^[8]^[110] In addition to standard digital cinemas, it will be also released in various film formats including IMAX 70 mm (30 prints), standard 70 mm (113 prints) and 35 mm (around 80 prints).^[111]

The film was released on the same day as Barbie, a fantasy comedy film directed by Greta Gerwig based on Mattel's Barbie fashion dolls and media franchise, and distributed by Warner Bros. Many speculated that Warner Bros.' decision to release Barbie on the same day as Oppenheimer was done in order to deplete ticket sales of Oppenheimer, as retaliation for Nolan releasing the film with Universal.^[112] Due to the tonal and genre dissonance between the two films, many social media users created memes about how the two films appealed to different audiences,^[113] and how they should be viewed as a double feature.^[114] The trend was dubbed "Barbenheimer".^[115] In an interview with La Vanguardia, Cillian Murphy endorsed the phenomenon, saying "My advice would be for people to go see both, on the same day. If they are good films, then that's cinema's gain."^[116]^[117]

As of March 2022, Universal Pictures halted the release of its titles in Russia, joining other major American film distributors in the boycott against the country following its invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.^[118] Oppenheimer consequently did not have a Russian release.

In Japan, the only country to have been attacked by nuclear bombs, the film is yet to have a release date. In late June 2023, a Universal Pictures spokesperson told Variety that "plans have not been finalized in all markets." Variety also pointed out that it's not uncommon for American films to be released in Japan months after the theatrical debut in the United States.^[119] The Economist suggested that due to the film's controversial theme in Japan, it may never get released there.^[120]

Classifications and censorship

In the United States, the film received an R-rating from the Motion Picture Association for "some sexuality, nudity, and language", meaning anyone under 17 needs to be accompanied by an adult guardian. It is Nolan's first film to receive that rating since Insomnia (2002).^[121] In Australia, the film received an MA 15+ rating from the Australian Classification Board board for "strong sex and a suicide scene".^[122]

In some countries, including those in the Middle East, South Asia and Southeast Asia, Universal distributed a version of the film with Florence Pugh's nude body covered by a computer-generated black dress.^[123]^[124]^[125]

India

In India, Oppenheimer was released with all instances of nudity, sex and cigarette smoking scenes censored (but not cut) by the filmmakers, earning the U/A certificate from the Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) while retaining the running time.^[126] The audio from the scene, where Tatlock directs Oppenheimer to read a verse from the Hindu scripture Bhagavad Gita, "I am become Death, destroyer of worlds", while the two have intercourse, remained intact.^[127] As NDTV reported, the Minister for Information and Broadcasting Anurag Thakur questioned how the CBFC certified the film with the verse heard during such circumstance in the first place, and asked the scene to be deleted.^[128]

The Hindu right in India took offence at and demanded the removal of the scene.^[129] Among them was journalist Uday Mahurkar, who wrote an open letter to Nolan calling the scene a "direct assault on religious beliefs of a billion tolerant Hindus", and demanded its removal from all releases of Oppenheimer across the world.^[127] On the other hand, actor Nitish Bharadwaj, who played Krishna in the television series Mahabharat, told The Times of India that "The use of this verse in the film should also be understood from Oppenheimer's emotional state of mind. A scientist thinks of his creation [24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and 365 days a year], irrespective of what he is doing. His mind space is consumed fully of his creation [and] the physical act is just a natural mechanical act."^[130]

Despite the opposition from Hindu fundamentalists, Oppenheimer was well received in most of the country.^[129]

Reception

Box office

As of August 25, 2023, Oppenheimer has grossed $293.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $438.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $731.8 million.^[3]^[4]

United States and Canada

In the United States and Canada, Oppenheimer was released alongside Barbie, and was originally projected to gross $45–50 million from 3,610 theaters in its opening weekend.^[131] The week of their releases, AMC Theatres announced that over 40,000 AMC Stubs members had already pre-booked tickets to both films on the same day.^[132] After grossing $33 million on its first day (including $10.5 million from Thursday night previews), weekend estimates were raised to $77 million. It went on to debut to $82.5 million,^[133] finishing second behind Barbie and marking one of the best opening weekends ever for an R-rated drama; 64% of the audience was male, with 33% being 18–34 years old. The Barbenheimer phenomenon was credited with boosting interest in the film, with a total of 79% of tickets sold over the weekend being for the two films (27% for Oppenheimer), a combined total of 18.5 million people.^[134] The film's opening weekend was Nolan's best for an original film, being the highest of his filmography outside of the latter two films from The Dark Knight trilogy.^[135] The film made $46.2 million in its second weekend (a drop of 44%), remaining in second behind Barbie.^[136]^[137] The film made $28.7 million in its third weekend, finishing third behind Barbie and newcomer Meg 2: The Trench.^[138] On August 16, Oppenheimer surpassed Sing to become the highest-grossing film to never reach the number one spot at the box office.^[139]^[140]

Other territories

Outside the US and Canada, the film grossed $98 million in its opening weekend.^[141] The following weekend, Oppenheimer earned $77.1 million, dropping by just 21% to become Nolan's highest-grossing film in 30 countries, including India, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Turkey.^[142] In its third weekend, Oppenheimer grossed $52.8 million for a decline of 31%.^[143] As of August 13, 2023, the highest grossing territories were the United Kingdom ($63.7 million), Germany ($39.5 million), France ($31.4 million), Australia ($22.4 million) and Spain ($18.3 million).^[144]

Critical response

Critics praised Oppenheimer primarily for its screenplay, the performances of the cast (particularly those of Murphy and Downey), and the visuals;^[145] it was frequently cited as one of the best films of 2023 up to that point, although some criticism was aimed towards the writing of the female characters.^[146] On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 93% of 457 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 8.6/10. The website's consensus reads: "Oppenheimer marks another engrossing achievement from Christopher Nolan that benefits from Murphy's tour-de-force performance and stunning visuals."^[147] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 88 out of 100, based on 69 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".^[148] Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while those polled at PostTrak gave it a 93% overall positive score, with 74% saying they would definitely recommend the film.^[134]

Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times awarded Oppenheimer a perfect four out of four stars, describing it as "magnificent" and "one of the best films of the 21st century".^[149] The A.V. Club's Matthew Jackson deemed it a "masterpiece", adding that "it's Christopher Nolan's best film so far, a step up to a new level for one of our finest filmmakers, and a movie that burns itself into your brain".^[150] Empire's Dan Jolin labeled it a "masterfully constructed character study", taking particular note of Murphy's performance and van Hoytema's IMAX cinematography.^[151] Peter Suderman writing for Reason magazine said that the film leaves the viewer with a sense of "fear and foreboding about the horror of full-on nuclear conflict in the wake of the nuclear bomb. Humanity is both great and terrible. Oppenheimer isn't just a movie—it's a warning."^[152] Matt Zoller Seitz, writing for RogerEbert.com gave Oppenheimer a full four stars rating. He lauded Nolan's storytelling, exploration of Oppenheimer's character, and the film's technical achievements, concluding: "As a physical experience, Oppenheimer is something else entirely—it's hard to say exactly what, and that's what's so fascinating about it".^[153] Peter Travers of ABC News described the film as a "monumental achievement" and "one of the best films you'll see anywhere".^[154] Caryn James of BBC Culture similarly termed it "boldly imaginative and [Nolan's] most mature work yet", adding that it combined the "explosive, commercially-enticing action of The Dark Knight trilogy" with the "cerebral underpinnings" of Memento, Inception and Tenet.^[155] IGN critic Siddhant Adlakha gave Oppenheimer 10/10, describing it as "a three-hour biopic that plays like a jolting thriller" and Nolan's most "abstract" work yet.^[156] Saibal Chatterjee from NDTV rated the film 4.5 stars out of 5 and stated: "Oppenheimer, a cinematic achievement of blinding brilliance, achieves a sublime combination of visual grandeur, technical flair, emotional intimacy and an examination of the limits of human endeavor and ambition".^[157] In August 2023, it ranked number 3 on Collider's list of "The 10 Best Drama Movies of the 2020s So Far," writing that Nolan "explores the world’s obsession with destructive nuclear weapons from the perspective of their creator; using the Greek myth of Dante as an inspiration, Oppenheimer makes it clear that once this type of power is unleashed, it is bound to be used again."^[158]

Despite praising the film's themes and performances, CNN's Brian Lowry believed that "Nolan juggles a lot, in a way that somewhat works to the movie's detriment".^[159] While acknowledging the contribution of "American scientists and American enterprise", Brett Mason noted that the film omits the crucial contributions of non-Americans that ensured the work was able to commence as early as December 1941: "Nolan completely ignores the crucial role that British science and Australian physicist Mark Oliphant played in jump-starting the quest."^[160] Armond White of the National Review called the film "so slick, yet laborious, convoluted, and enervating.", adding that Oppenheimer is "another piece of inscrutable pseudo-art to be left on the remainder shelf next to Criterion's edition of Paul Schrader's Mishima."^[161]

The film has been criticized by some reviewers as a missed opportunity for telling "how American leaders knowingly risked and caused harm to the health of their fellow citizens in the name of war," specifically how more than 13,000 New Mexicans living within a 50-mile (80 km) radius were not warned or evacuated, but exposed to high radiation levels from radioactive fallout with health-related side-effects lasting for four generations. It did not mention the displacement of farmers of the Pajarito Plateau in northern New Mexico through eminent domain for the building of the Los Alamos laboratory, or uranium mining. As of July 2023, families continue to wait for recognition and coverage by the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act.^[162] Emily Strasser, the granddaughter of a Manhattan Project scientist, has criticized the film for depicting what she considers a sanitized version of the events while not covering the effects of the Trinity test and subsequent bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki directly.^[163] Justin Chang, writing for the Los Angeles Times, staunchly defended Nolan's artistic integrity in accurately depicting Oppenheimer's inability to see the true victims of his work.^[164] Instead of detouring to Hiroshima and Nagasaki to satisfy "representational completists ... Nolan treats them instead as a profound absence, an indictment by silence".^[164]

Writing for The New Yorker, Richard Brody unfavorably compared Oppenheimer to the English Wikipedia's J. Robert Oppenheimer article, writing that the "simple, fact-heavy article [...] turns out to offer more complexity and more enticing detail than Nolan's script does. And it has more to say about the movie's essential themes—the ironies and perils that arise when science, ambition, and political power mix—than the movie itself does."^[165]

Accolades

Oppenheimer received nominations for Best Thriller, Best Drama TV Spot (for a Feature Film), Best Sound Editing in a TV Spot (for a Feature Film), and Best Thriller TV Spot (for a Feature Film); and won Best Drama, Best Summer 2023 Blockbuster Trailer, and Best Sound Editing at the 2023 Golden Trailer Awards.^[166]^[167] It finished as runner-up for Most Anticipated Film at the 6th Hollywood Critics Association Midseason Film Awards.^[168]

Influence

The renewed attention to the site and associated nuclear testing pushed the United States Senate to pass legislation which, if passed by Congress, could provide compensation and health care funding to those who were affected, known as the "Downwinders".^[169]

Historical accuracy

The film was praised for its accuracy, with some scenes being taken word-for-word out of the book or real-life events.^[170]

Many of the changes are small embellishments or changes from real-life. For example, Oppenheimer was not as excited about his discovery of black holes as it is shown in the film since he did not know how significant it would be (though the study was released the same day Germany invaded Poland, as shown in the film). During the Trinity test, Donald Hornig had his hand on the kill switch for a faster reaction time, not near it as depicted in the film. Truman did say "Don't bring that crybaby into my office again," but not immediately after their meeting.^[170]^[171]

The scene where Oppenheimer poisons his professor's apple is based on accounts that Oppenheimer gave of the incident, but it is unclear whether it occurred in real life.^[172] In the film, he is depicted as putting potassium cyanide in the apple. Oppenheimer is depicted in the film as having a change of heart the next day and narrowly preventing the apple from being eaten. There is no evidence that Niels Bohr almost ate the apple, or had any involvement in the incident.^[170]^[173]

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^ Strasser, Emily (August 9, 2023). "My grandfather helped build the bomb. 'Oppenheimer' sanitized its impacts". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on August 10, 2023. Retrieved August 9, 2023. Oppenheimer does not show a single image of Hiroshima or Nagasaki. Instead, it recreates the horror through Oppenheimer's imagination, when, during a congratulatory speech to the scientists of Los Alamos after the bombing of Hiroshima, the sound of the hysterically cheering crowd goes silent, the room flashes bright, and tatters of skin peel from the face of a white woman in the audience. The scene is powerful and unsettling, and, arguably, avoids sensationalizing the atrocity by not depicting the victims outright. But it also plays into a problematic pattern of whitewashing both the history and threat of nuclear war by appropriating the trauma of the Japanese victims to incite fear about possible future violence upon white bodies. An example of this pattern is a 1948 cover of John Hersey's Hiroshima, which featured a white couple fleeing a city beneath a glowing orange sky, even though the book itself brought the visceral human suffering to American readers through the eyes of six actual survivors of the bombing. The Oppenheimer film also neglects the impacts of fallout from nuclear testing, including from the Trinity test depicted in the film; the harm to the health of blue-collar production workers exposed to toxic and radiological materials; and the contamination of Oak Ridge and other production sites. Instead, the impressive pyrotechnics of the Trinity test, images of missile trails descending through clouds toward a doomed planet, and Earth-consuming fireballs interspersed with digital renderings of a quantum universe of swirling stars and atoms, elevate the bomb to the realm of the sublime—terrible, yes, but also awesome.
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External links

===

American Prometheus

American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer
	First edition cover, photo by Alfred Eisenstaedt
Author	Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin
Publisher	Alfred A. Knopf
Publication date	2005
Pages	721
ISBN	978-0-375-72626-2
OCLC	249029647
Dewey Decimal	530.092
LC Class	QC16.O62 B57 2005

Oppenheimer
Oppenheimer
	Theatrical release poster
Directed by	Christopher Nolan
Screenplay by	Christopher Nolan
Based on	American Prometheus; by Kai Bird; Martin J. Sherwin;
Produced by	Emma Thomas; Charles Roven; Christopher Nolan;
Starring	Cillian Murphy; Emily Blunt; Matt Damon; Robert Downey Jr.; Florence Pugh; Josh Hartnett; Casey Affleck; Rami Malek; Kenneth Branagh;
Cinematography	Hoyte van Hoytema
Edited by	Jennifer Lame
Music by	Ludwig Göransson
Production; companies	Syncopy Inc.; Atlas Entertainment;
Distributed by	Universal Pictures
Release dates	July 11, 2023 (Le Grand Rex); July 21, 2023 (United States and United Kingdom);
Running time	180 minutes
Countries	United States; United Kingdom;
Language	English
Budget	$100 million
Box office	$731.8 million

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer is a 2005 biography of theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, the leader of the Manhattan Project which produced the first nuclear weapons, written by Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin over a period of twenty-five years. It won numerous awards, including the 2006 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography.

The book served as inspiration for Christopher Nolan's 2023 biographical film Oppenheimer.

Summary[edit]

J. Robert Oppenheimer, often credited as the "father of the atomic bomb", was a theoretical physicist and the director of the Manhattan Project's Los Alamos Laboratory, which designed and built the world's first nuclear weapons. The bomb is regarded as a crucial turning point and a significant meeting between science and wartime weapons. This pivots Oppenheimer as not only an important historical figure but also as a symbol for atomic bomb ethics and political discourse about nuclear power. The book delves into various components of Oppenheimer's life inside and outside the Manhattan Project. His early life, ambitions, ideas, relationships with other physicists, security hearing and impact are also discussed in the book.

Production[edit]

Historian Martin J. Sherwin, who had previously written A World Destroyed: Hiroshima and Its Legacies (1975), started to work on the Oppenheimer biography in 1979,^[2] and signed the first contract with the publisher, Knopf, on March 13, 1980, for $70,000.^[3] Between 1979 and 1985^[2] he conducted interviews "with 112 persons in his [Oppenheimer's] orbit",^[4] including his friend Haakon Chevalier, and his son Peter, who refused a formal interview. Sherwin gathered "some 50,000 pages of interviews, transcripts, letters, diaries, declassified documents and F.B.I. dossiers, stored in seemingly endless boxes in his basement, attic and office". After the deadline had come, and after his editor's retirement, Sherwin had still not finished the book.^[3] Thomas Powers writes that "historians of the subject, a small gossiping group, suggested that Sherwin was the latest victim of the curse of Oppenheimer".^[2] The book became a joke in Sherwin's family, and he said "that he was going to take the book to the grave".^[5]

In 1999 Sherwin invited his friend, writer and editor Kai Bird,^[3] who had already written two political biographies,^[2] to join him and put it together in a cohesive and readable format. At first Bird refused, but eventually agreed to work on the book, and both authors signed a new contract with Knopf, for a further $290,000. Bird wrote drafts that were then reviewed and rewritten by Sherwin.^[3]

The working title of the book was Oppie, but that was vetoed by their editor. Susan Goldmark, Bird's wife, suggested the new title: "Prometheus … fire … the bomb is this fire. And you could put 'American' there." Sherwin said that his friend Ronald Steel independently suggested the same title.^[3] First comparison of the physicists who made the bomb possible to Prometheus was in the Scientific Monthly in September 1945: "Modern Prometheans have raided Mount Olympus again and have brought back for man the very thunderbolts of Zeus."^[6] Some reviewers also connected the name of the book to Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus.^[7]

Reception[edit]

The biography was praised by critics. The Boston Globe wrote that the book "stands as an Everest among the mountains of books on the bomb project and Oppenheimer, and is an achievement not likely to be surpassed or equaled."^[3] Janet Maslin wrote in her The New York Times review that "American Prometheus aligns its subject's most critical decisions with both his early education and his ultimate unraveling. It succeeds in deeply fathoming his most damaging, self-contradictory behavior." She noted that it is "a thorough examination and synthesis, sometimes overwhelming in its detail".^[8] Another reviewer notes that "there is no mathematics and very little physics. There is little about the engineering of the “gadget” tested in the New Mexico desert on July 16, 1945."^[9]

Thomas Powers, in his review of several Oppenheimer's biographies for The New York Review, noted that Sherwin had an advantage in writing Oppenheimer's biography in 1979. Many friends and colleagues of Oppenheimer were, at that time, still alive.^[2] Powers described the book as "clear in its purpose, deeply felt, persuasively argued, disciplined in form, and written with a sustained literary power", and notes the complex character of Oppenheimer:^[2]

But it is Oppenheimer the man, not general ideas about the nuclear age, that dominates these pages. Oppenheimer emerges in all his complexity — a brainy theorist but also an "underdogger", quick in his sympathy for those at the bottom of the social ladder; a sometime revolutionary who irritated former students like Philip Morrison with his talk after the war about "Dean" and "George"—Dean Acheson and George Marshall; devoted defender of his alcoholic wife Kitty but blind to her ego-crushing treatment of their son, Peter; lifelong friend of students like Serber, and betrayer of students like Rossi Lomanitz, Joseph Weinberg, and Bernard Peters, whom he simply threw to the Red-hunting wolves.

Frank A. Settle called the book "meticulously researched" and "the most comprehensive biography to date".^[10] Braham Dabscheck notes the "scholarship of the highest order".^[4] John S. Rigden calls the book "well written and almost free of serious errors", and that "reading this worthy book is a gripping experience: It stimulates the mind and stirs the emotions."^[11]

Thomas A. Julian critiqued the book and the authors, writing that "[t]hey still assert, despite the conclusive evidence to the contrary ... that Japan was already defeated and wanted to 'surrender'", and that they "ignore disturbing evidence provided from former Soviet sources that Oppenheimer might have provided information to the Soviet Union about the U.S. atomic bomb project".^[12]

Awards[edit]

2005 National Book Critics Circle Award^[13]^[14]
2006 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography^[3]
2008 Duff Cooper Prize^[15]

Film adaptation[edit]

British-American filmmaker Christopher Nolan began work on an Oppenheimer biopic in 2019 following a gift, a book of Oppenheimer's speeches, from British actor Robert Pattinson, who starred in Nolan's film Tenet. Nolan continued a newfound interest in Oppenheimer, reading American Prometheus, and decided to base his screenplay on the book, centering on the security clearance hearings. Since 2015, the adaptation rights were owned by producer J. David Wargo, who agreed to work alongside Nolan.^[5]

Nolan met with Bird as Sherwin had been diagnosed with cancer and was not able to travel.^[5]^[1] Bird read the script prior to filming:^[16]

"Nolan covers in a very deft way the argument among the physicists over whether the bomb was necessary or not and has Oppenheimer after Hiroshima saying the bomb was used on a virtually already defeated enemy," Bird adds. "People who know nothing about Oppenheimer will go thinking they're going to see a movie about the father of the atomic bomb." Instead, "they're going to see this mysterious figure and a deeply mysterious biographical story."

Budgeted at $100 million, the resulting film, titled Oppenheimer, was released on July 21, 2023, to critical and commercial acclaim. Written and directed by Nolan, it stars Cillian Murphy as Oppenheimer.^[17]

Nolan said that "I don't think I ever would have taken this on without Kai and Martin's book", and Murphy said to Bird during production that the book is "mandatory reading around here".^[3] According to Nolan, "he envisioned Oppenheimer not as a biography ('a formula that you write into can be creatively stifling') but more like "a thriller, a heist film, a courtroom drama".^[1] Nolan also said:^[18]

What I wanted to do was take the audience into the mind and the experience of a person who sat at the absolute center of the largest shift in history. Like it or not, J. Robert Oppenheimer is the most important person who ever lived. He made the world we live in, for better or for worse.

Other Oppenheimer biographies[edit]

Monk, Ray (2014). Robert Oppenheimer: a life inside the center (First Anchor books ed.). New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0385722049.^[19]
Thorpe, Charles (2006). Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-79848-6.
McMillan, Priscilla J. (2005). The Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer: And the Birth of the Modern Arms Race. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-2567-2.
Bernstein, Jeremy (2004). Oppenheimer: Portrait of an Enigma. Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-3330-4.
Cassidy, David C. (2004). J. Robert Oppenheimer and the American Century. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9317-9.
Herken, Gregg (2002). Brotherhood of the bomb: the tangled lives and loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller. New York: H.Holt. ISBN 978-0-8050-6588-6.
Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-65719-2.
Goodchild, Peter (1980). J. Robert Oppenheimer: Shatterer of Worlds. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-30530-0.
Pharr Davis, Nuel (1968). Lawrence and Oppenheimer. Simon & Schuster.

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^ "Why Oppenheimer Was Called the 'American Prometheus'". MovieMaker. July 12, 2023. Retrieved July 16, 2023.
^ Rollyson, Carl (July 17, 2023). "New Film Offers Chance To Grapple With Oppenheimer's Communist Ties, Beyond the Martyrology of McCarthyism". The New York Sun. Archived from the original on August 15, 2023.
^ Maslin, Janet (April 21, 2005). "The Physics, Philosophy and, Literally, Dirty Laundry of Robert Oppenheimer". The New York Times. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
^ Buchan, James (February 2, 2008). "The burden of the bomb" – via The Guardian.
^ Settle, Frank A. (2006). "American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (review)". The Journal of Military History. 70 (1): 205–206. doi:10.1353/jmh.2006.0024. ISSN 1543-7795. Retrieved July 15, 2023.
^ Rigden, John S. (November 2005). "American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer". Physics Today (review). 58 (11): 51–52. doi:10.1063/1.2155759.
^ Julian, Thomas A (2006). "American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (review)". The Journal of Military History. 70 (1): 201–205. doi:10.1353/jmh.2006.0010. ISSN 1543-7795.
^ "Reviews: 'Robert Oppenheimer' by Ray Monk and 'An Atomic Love Story' by Shirley Streshinsky and Patricia Klaus". Chicago Tribune. November 10, 2013. Retrieved July 23, 2023.
^ "2005". National Book Critics Circle.
^ "1956–2016". The Pol Roger Duff Cooper Prize. Retrieved July 23, 2023.
^ Kifer, Andy. "The Real History Behind Christopher Nolan's 'Oppenheimer'". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved July 23, 2023.
^ Kroll, Justin (October 8, 2021). "Cillian Murphy Confirmed to Star As J. Robert Oppenheimer In Christopher Nolan's Next Film At Universal, Film Will Bow in July 2023". Deadline. Retrieved July 28, 2022.
^ McCluskey, Megan (July 21, 2023). "Here's How Close 'Oppenheimer' Sticks to J. Robert Oppenheimer's Life". Time. Retrieved July 23, 2023.
^ Maslin, Janet (May 27, 2013). "Rough-Edged Atomic Pioneer". The New York Times. Retrieved July 23, 2023.

External links[edit]

American Prometheus at the Internet Archive
Presentation by Bird and Sherwin on American Prometheus, September 30, 2006, C-SPAN
Oppie—"A very mysterious and delphic character." Interview with Kai Bird, co-author of American Prometheus for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
Martin J. Sherwin Collection Relating to J. Robert Oppenheimer (Research material gathered for the writing of American Prometheus) at the Library of Congress

===

References to Bohm

Page 171

Weinberg quickly became a devoted member of Oppenheimer’s inner circle. “He knew that I adored him,” Weinberg said, “as we all did.” Philip Morrison, Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz, David Bohm and Max Friedman were some of the other graduate students who regarded Oppenheimer as their mentor and role model during these years. These were unconventional young men who, in the words of Morrison, prided themselves on being “self-conscious and daring intellectuals.” All of them were studying theoretical physics. And all of them were active in one or another Popular Front cause. Some, like Philip Morrison and David Bohm, have acknowledged that they joined the Communist Party. Others were merely on the fringe. Joe Weinberg was probably in the Party for at least a brief time.

Page 171

“We were all close to communism at the time,’ Bohm recalled. Actually, until 1940-41, Bohm didn’t have much sympathy for the Communist Party. But then, with the collapse of France, it seemed to him that no one but the communists had the will to resist the Nazis. Indeed, many Europeans

Page 172

appeared to prefer the Nazis to the Russians. “And I felt,’ Bohm said, “that there was such a trend in America too. I thought the Nazis were a total threat to civilization. . . . It seemed that the Russians were the only ones that were really fighting them. Then I began to listen to what they said more sympathetically.”

Page 172

In November 1942, just as the Russians opened up an offensive to push the Nazis back from the outskirts of Stalingrad, Bohm began attending regular meetings at a Berkeley chapter of the Communist Party. Typically, fifteen people might show up. After a while, Bohm found the meetings “interminable,” and decided that the group’s various plans to “stir up things on the campus” didn’t amount to much. “I had the feeling that they were really rather ineffective.” Gradually, Bohm just stopped attending. But he remained a passionate and enthusiastic intellectual Marxist, reading Marxist texts together with his closest friends at the time, Weinberg, Lomanitz and Bernard Peters.

Page 172

David Hawkins came to Berkeley in 1936 to study philosophy. Almost immediately, he fell in with a number of Oppenheimer’s students, including Phil Morrison, David Bohm and Joe Weinberg. Hawkins encountered Oppenheimer one day at a meeting of the Teachers’ Union; they were discussing the plight of underpaid teaching assistants and Hawkins recalled being struck by Oppenheimer’s eloquence and sympathetic demeanor: “He was very persuasive, very cogent, elegant in language and able to listen to what other people said and incorporate it in what he would say. I had the

Page 175

OPPENHEIMER BACKED OFF from the union in the autumn of 1941, but the notion of organizing the scientists in the Rad Lab did not die. A little more than a year later, in early 1943, Rossi Lomanitz, Irving David Fox, David Bohm, Bernard Peters and Max Friedman, all Oppenheimer students, did join the union (FAECT Local 25). The usual motivations for forming a union were conspicuously absent. Lomanitz, for one, was making $150 a month at the Rad Lab—more than double his previous salary. No one had

Page 187

By the autumn of 1942, it was more or less an open secret around Berkeley that Oppenheimer and his students were exploring the feasibility of a powerful new weapon associated with the atom. He had sometimes talked about his work, even to casual acquaintances. John McTernan, an attorney for the National Labor Relations Board, and a friend of Jean Tatlock’s, ran into Oppenheimer one evening at a party and vividly recalled the encounter: “He talked very fast, trying to explain his work on this explosive device. I didn’t understand a word he was saying. .. . And then, the next time I saw him he made it clear that he was no longer free to talk about it.’ Almost anyone who had friends in the physics department might have heard speculation about such work. David Bohm thought that “many people all around knew what was going on at Berkeley... . It didn’t take much to piece it together.”

Page 187

A young graduate student in the psychology department, Betty Goldstein, arrived on campus fresh from Smith in the autumn of 1942 and befriended several of Oppenheimer’s graduate students. The future Betty Friedan began dating David Bohm, who was writing his doctoral dissertation in physics under Oppie’s supervision. Bohm—who decades later became a world-famous physicist and philosopher of science—fell in love with Betty, and introduced her to his friends, Rossi Lomanitz, Joe Weinberg and Max Friedman. They all socialized on weekends and sometimes saw each other in what Friedan characterized as “various radical study groups.”

Page 192

to Steve Nelson. Initially, Pash’s investigation focused on Lomanitz, merely because Pash had information that Lomanitz was a Communist Party member. A tail was put on Lomanitz, and one day in June 1943 he was observed standing just outside U.C. Berkeley’s Sather Gate with several friends. They were posing, with their arms draped over each other’s shoulders, for a photographer who routinely sold his services to students on campus. After the photo was taken and Lomanitz and his friends walked away, a government agent walked up to the photographer and bought the negative. Lomanitz’ friends were quickly identified as Joe Weinberg, David Bohm and Max Friedman—all of them Oppie’s students. From that moment on, these young men were marked as subversives.

Page 192

Lieutenant Colonel Pash testified that his investigators “determined in the first place that these four men I mentioned were very frequently together.” Without divulging “investigative techniques or operational procedures,” Pash explained that “we had an unidentified man and we had this photograph. As a result of our study we determined and were sure that Joe was Joseph Weinberg.” He also claimed that he had “sufficient information” to name both Weinberg and Bohm as Communist Party members.

Page 192

Pash was convinced that he had stumbled upon a sophisticated ring of wily Soviet agents, and he felt that any means necessary should be used to break the suspects. In July 1943, the FBI field office in San Francisco reported that Pash wanted to kidnap Lomanitz, Weinberg, Bohm and Friedman, take them out to sea in a boat and interrogate them “after the Russian manner.” The FBI noted that any information gathered in such a fashion could not be used in court, “but apparently Pash did not intend to have anyone available for prosecution after questioning.” This was too much for the FBI: “Pressure was brought to bear to discourage this particular activity.”

Page 193

IN THE SPRING OF 1943, just as David Bohm was trying to write up his thesis research on the collisions of protons and deuterons, he was suddenly told that such work was classified. Since he lacked the necessary security clearance, his own notes on scattering calculations were seized and he was informed that he was barred from writing up his own research. He appealed to Oppenheimer, who then wrote a letter certifying that his student had nevertheless met the requirements for a thesis. On this basis, Bohm was awarded his Ph.D. by Berkeley in June 1943. Although Oppenheimer personally requested the transfer of Bohm to Los Alamos, Army security officers flatly refused to give him clearance. Instead, a disbelieving Oppenheimer was told that because Bohm still had relatives in Germany, he couldn’t be cleared for special work. This was a lie; in fact Bohm was banned from Los Alamos because of his association with Weinberg. He spent the war years working in the Radiation Lab, where he studied the behavior of plasmas.

Page 193

Although barred from working on the Manhattan Project, Bohm was able to continue his work as a physicist. Lomanitz and several others were not so fortunate. Shortly after Ernest Lawrence appointed him to serve as the liaison between the Rad Lab and the Manhattan Project’s plant at Oak Ridge, Lomanitz received a draft notice from the Army. Both Lawrence and Oppenheimer interceded for him, but to no avail. Lomanitz spent the remainder of the war years in various stateside Army camps.

Page 254

of Jean’s phone but had also proposed to interrogate Weinberg, Lomanitz, Bohm and Friedman “in the Russian manner” and then dispose of their bodies at sea.

Page n298

Joe Weinberg, Rossi Lomanitz, David Bohm and Max Friedman were some of Oppie’s acolytes at Berkeley. “They copied his gestures, his mannerisms, his intonations,” recalled Bob Serber.

Page 373

Pais soon had a chance to observe Oppenheimer in action. For three days in June 1947, twenty-three of the country’s leading theoretical physicists gathered at the Ram’s Head Inn, an exclusive resort on Shelter Island, at the eastern tip of Long Island. Oppenheimer had taken the lead in organizing the conference. Among others, he brought Hans Bethe, I. I. Rabi, Richard Feynman, Victor Weisskopf, Edward Teller, George Uhlenbeck, Julian Schwinger, David Bohm, Robert Marshak, Willis Lamb and Hendrik Kramers to discuss “The Foundations of Quantum Mechanics.” With the end of the war, theoretical physicists were finally able to shift their attention back to fundamental issues. One of Oppenheimer’s doctoral students, Willis Lamb, gave the first of the conference’s many remarkable presentations, outlining what would soon become known as the “Lamb shift,” which in turn became a key step to a new theory of quantum electrodynamics. (Lamb would win a Nobel Prize in 1955 for his work on this topic.) Similarly, Rabi gave a groundbreaking talk on nuclear magnetic resonance.

Page 374

Not everyone applauded Oppenheimer’s performance. David Bohm recalled thinking that Oppie was talking too much. “He was very fluent with his words,” Bohm said, “but there wasn’t much behind what he was saying to back up that much talking.” Bohm thought his mentor had begun to lose his insightfulness, perhaps simply because he hadn’t been doing anything of any substance in physics for many years. “He [Oppenheimer] didn’t sympathize with what I was doing in physics,’ Bohm recalled. “I wanted to question fundamentals, and he felt that one should work on using the present theory, exploiting it and trying to work out its consequences.” Earlier in their relationship, Bohm had had tremendous regard for Oppenheimer. But over time he found himself agreeing with another friend who had worked with Oppenheimer, Milton Plesset, who expressed the view that Oppie was “not capable of genuine originality, but that he is very good at comprehending other people’s ideas and seeing their implications.”

Page 391

DAVID BOHM

Page 393

OPPENHEIMER MaAy have hoped to inoculate himself against congressional investigators, but in the spring of 1949 HUAC launched a major investigation of atomic spying at Berkeley’s Rad Lab. Not only Frank but Robert himself was a potential target. Four of Oppenheimer’s former students— David Bohm, Rossi Lomanitz, Max Friedman and Joseph Weinberg—were served with subpoenas requiring them to testify. HUAC’s investigators knew that Weinberg had been overheard on a wiretap talking to Steve Nelson in 1943 about the atomic bomb. But while this evidence appeared to implicate Weinberg in atomic spying, HUAC’s counsel knew that a warrantless wiretap would not stand up in court. On April 26, 1949, HUAC brought Weinberg face-to-face with Steve Nelson. He flatly denied having ever met

Page 394

Nelson. HUAC’s lawyers knew Weinberg had perjured himself—but proving it was going to be difficult. They hoped to build their case with testimony from Bohm, Friedman and Lomanitz.

Page 394

Bohm was not sure whether he should testify, and if so, whether he should be willing to testify about his friends. Einstein urged him to refuse to testify, even though he might have to go to jail. “You may have to sit for a while,” the scientist told him. Bohm didn’t want to take the Fifth Amendment; he reasoned that being a member of the Communist Party was not illegal, and therefore there was nothing he could incriminate himself about. His instinct was to agree to testify about his own political activities but refuse to testify about others. Aware that Lomanitz had received a similar subpoena, Bohm contacted his old friend, who was teaching in Nashville at the time. Lomanitz had had a rough time since the war; each time he found a decent job, the FBI would inform his employer that Lomanitz was a communist and he would be fired. His future seemed particularly bleak, but he found the wherewithal to visit Bohm in Princeton.

Page 394

Soon after his arrival, the two old friends were walking on Nassau Street when Oppenheimer emerged from a barbershop. Robert hadn’t seen Lomanitz for years, but they had kept in touch. In the autumn of 1945, he had written Lomanitz. “Dear Rossi: I was glad to get your long, but very melancholy letter. When you are back in the States and free to do so please come and see me... . It is a hard time, and especially hard for you, but hold on—it won’t last forever. With all warm good wishes, Opje.” Now, after exchanging pleasantries with Oppie, Bohm and Lomanitz explained their predicament. According to Lomanitz, Oppenheimer became agitated and suddenly exclaimed, “Oh, my God, all is lost. There is an FBI man on the Un-American Activities Committee.” Lomanitz thought this “paranoiac.”

Page 394

Oppenheimer later characterized this encounter with his former students as a brief two-minute conversation. He said he had merely advised them to “tell the truth,’ and they had responded, “We won’t lie.” In the event, Bohm testified before HUAC in May and again in June 1949. On advice of his counsel, the legendary civil liberties lawyer Clifford Durr, he refused to cooperate, citing both the First and Fifth amendments. For the time being, Princeton University, where he was then teaching, issued a statement supporting Bohm.

Page 399

Peters had it easy compared to Bohm and Lomanitz. More than a year later, they were both indicted for contempt of Congress; after Bohm was arrested on December 4, 1950 (and released on $1,500 bail), Princeton suspended him from all his teaching duties and even barred him from setting foot on the campus. Six months later, he was tried and acquitted. Even so, Princeton decided not to renew Bohm’s teaching contract when it expired that June.

Page 400

While there was little Oppenheimer could have done to protect his former students, he sometimes behaved as if he was truly frightened of any association with them. Their company represented a link to his political past and therefore a threat to his political future. He was clearly scared. After Bohm lost his job with Princeton, Einstein suggested that he be brought to the Institute for Advanced Study to work as his assistant. The great man was still interested in revising quantum theory, and he was heard to say that “if anyone can do it, then it will be Bohm.” But Oppenheimer vetoed the idea; Bohm would be a political liability to the Institute. By one account, he also reportedly instructed Eleanor Leary to keep Bohm away. Leary was subsequently heard telling the Institute’s staff, “David Bohm is not to see Dr. Oppenheimer. He is not to see him.”

Page 400

As a matter of expediency, Oppenheimer had every reason to distance himself from Bohm. On the other hand, when Bohm heard of a teaching opportunity in Brazil, Oppenheimer wrote him a strong letter of recommendation. Bohm spent the rest of his career abroad, first in Brazil, then in Israel and finally in England. He had once deeply admired Oppenheimer, and though over the years those feelings had turned to ambivalence, he never held Oppie responsible for his banishment from America. “I think he acted fairly to me as far as he was able to,” Bohm said.

Page 400

Bohm knew Oppenheimer was under a great deal of strain. Shortly after the news broke about his HUAC testimony against Peters, Bohm had a candid conversation with Oppie. He asked why he had said such things about their friend. “He told me,’ Bohm recalled, “that his nerve just gave way at that moment. That somehow the thing was too much for him.... I can’t remember his words, but that’s what he meant. He has this tendency when things get too much, he sometimes does irrational things. He said he couldn’t understand why he did it.” Of course, it had happened before—in his interview with Pash in 1943 and his meeting with Truman in 1945—and it would happen again during his security hearing in 1954. But, as Bernard Peters observed to Weisskopf, “He [Oppenheimer] was obviously scared to tears of the hearings, but this is hardly an explanation. . . . I found it a rather sad experience to see a man whom I regarded very highly in such a state of moral despair.”

Page 439

claimed that after being shown photographs by the FBI, they could place David Bohm, George Eltenton and Joseph Weinberg at the same meeting. Sylvia named Weinberg as “Scientist X,” the individual labeled by the House Un-American Activities Committee as someone who gave atomic bomb secrets to a communist spy during the war. The California papers played these allegations as a “bombshell.” Paul Crouch was described as a ‘West Coast Whittaker Chambers,’ a reference to the Time magazine editor and former communist whose testimony had led, on January 21, 1950, to the perjury conviction of Alger Hiss.

Page 499

Gray spent the morning reading aloud the AEC’s letter of “indictment” and Oppenheimer’s reply. Over the next three and a half weeks, Gray repeatedly insisted that the proceedings were an “inquiry,” not a trial. But no one could listen to the AEC’s letter of charges without thinking that Robert Oppenheimer was on trial. His alleged crimes included joining numerous Communist Party front organizations; being “intimately associated” with a known communist, Dr. Jean Tatlock; associating with such other “known” communists as Dr. Thomas Addis, Kenneth May, Steve Nelson, and Isaac Folkoff; being responsible for the employment in the atom bomb project of such known communists as Joseph W. Weinberg, David Bohm, Rossi Lomanitz (all former students of Oppenheimer’s) and David

Page 510

The clearest and most convincing explanation of why Oppenheimer presented Pash with such an elaborately confused representation of his kitchen conversation with Chevalier was offered by Oppenheimer himself the day before his security hearing was concluded. His explanation not only conforms with the most compelling known facts, but it also conforms with Oppenheimer’s character—especially, as he had confessed to David Bohm five years earlier, “his tendency when things get too much” to say “irrational things.” Responding to Chairman Gray’s query whether he might have been telling the truth in 1943 to Pash and Lansdale, and was, in fact, fabricating today about the Chevalier incident, Oppenheimer replied:

Page 520

THE NEXT DAY, Friday, April 16, Robb resumed his cross-examination of Oppenheimer. He grilled him about his relationships with the Serbers, David Bohm and Joe Weinberg, and late in the day he got around to asking the physicist about his opposition to the development of the hydrogen bomb. After nearly five full days of intense interrogation, Oppenheimer must have been physically and mentally exhausted. But on this day—his last in the witness chair—he nevertheless mustered his razor-sharp wit. Wary from experience at being ambushed, and crystal clear about the issue, he was more adept at parrying Robb’s questions.

Page 584

In early December 1966, Oppenheimer heard from his former student, David Bohm, who had spent most of his career in Brazil and later, England. Bohm wrote to say that he had seen the Kipphardt play and a television program on Los Alamos in which Oppenheimer had been interviewed. “I was rather disturbed,’ Bohm wrote, “especially by a statement you made, indicating a feeling of guilt on your part. I feel it to be a waste of the life that is left to you for you to be caught up in such guilt feelings.” He then reminded Oppenheimer of a play by Jean-Paul Sartre “in which the hero is finally freed of guilt by recognizing responsibility. As I understand it, one feels guilty for past actions, because they grew out of what one was and still is.” Bohm believed that mere guilt feelings are meaningless. “I can understand that your dilemma was a peculiarly difficult one. Only you can assess the way in which you were responsible for what happened. . . .”

Page 584

Oppenheimer may well have had this exchange with Bohm in mind when Thomas B. Morgan—a Look magazine journalist—dropped by to interview him at his Institute office in early December. Morgan found him gazing at the autumn woods and the pond outside his window. On the wall

Page 627

“We were all close to communism”: Bohm, interview by Sherwin, 6/15/79, p. 5. “No one can feel”: Weinberg, quoted in F. David Peat, Infinite Potential, p. 60.

Page 627

“TI had the feeling”: Bohm, interview by Sherwin, 6/15/79, p. 17.

Page 629

“many people all around”: Bohm, interview by Sherwin, 6/15/79, p. 15.

Page 658

“sad personally about’: Lomanitz to Peter Michelmore, 5/21/68, Sherwin Collection. “if anyone can do it’: Peat, /nfinite Potential, pp. 104, 337; Peat cites a newspaper article, “After 40 Years, Professor Bohm Re-emerges,” by H. K. Fleming, Baltimore Sun, April 1990.

Page 658

“J think he acted fairly”: Bohm, interview by Sherwin, 6/15/79.

Page 683

“I was rather disturbed” and subsequent quotes: David Bohm to JRO, 11/29/66; JRO to Bohm, draft letter, 12/2/66; and JRO to Bohm, 12/5/66, Bohm file, box 20, JRO Papers.

Page 691

Peat, F. David. Infinite Potential: The Life and Times of David Bohm. Reading, MA: Helix Books, Addison-Wesley, 1997.

Page 697

Bethe, Hans, 7/13/79 (JE); 5/5/82 (MS) Bohm, David, 6/15/79 (MS)

Page 701

Berg, Moe, 222 Beria, Lavrenty, 190n Berkeley Radiation Laboratory, 86-7, 236-7 alleged espionage in, 190-2 HUAC investigation of, 393-4 union movement at, 174-6 Berle, Adolph, 558 Berlin, Isaiah, 377 Bernfeld, Siegfried, 125-6, 251, 376, 619n, 637n Bernfeld, Suzanne, 125 Bernheim, Frederick, 30—1, 36, 38, 43, 47, 49, 319, 608n Bernstein, Barton, J., 548, 654n Bernstein, Jeremy, 89, 149, 274, 378, 563 Bethe, Hans, 3, 4, 65, 66, 103, 149, 165, 179, 187, 207, 209, 215, 217-18, 220, 222, 270, 272, 277, 288, 305-6, 324, 352, 355, 373, 374, 388, 397-8, 441, 494, 523, 628n hydrogen bomb and, 419-20, 663n on JRO’s leadership style, 217-18, 281-2 on JRO’s post hearing demeanor, 552 Manhattan Project and, 180-1, 182, 183, 186, 212, 227, 282-3, 286 Teller and, 282-3 Bhagavad-Gita, 99-102, 152, 290, 305, 309, 575, 579 Biddle, Francis, 558 Birge, Raymond, 107, 320 Blackett, Patrick M. S., 42—3, 45-6, 50, 389, 578 black holes, 89—90 Bloch, Felix, 78, 133, 148, 181 “Bloody Thursday,” 105-6 Boas, George, 13 Bohemian Club, 87 Bohlen, Charles “Chip,” 453 Bohm, David, 171—2, 175, 187, 192, 193, 254, 373-4, 391, 393-4, 399-400, 439, 499, 510, 520, 584 Bohr, Aage, 269, 270 Bohr, Niels, 34, 42, 57, 65, 74-5, 87, 168, 169, 290, 294, 297, 334, 348, 370, 372, 375, 380, 381, 385, 399, 476, 641n complementarity and, 274, 355 influence on JRO of, 54, 2734 JRO’s first encounter with, 53-4 Los Alamos visited by, 266—7 open world idea of, 274, 286, 288-9, 432, 451 postwar concerns of, 268-73 sharing proposal of, 274-6

Page 721

chin in hand, JROMC. Page 3: JRO on horseback, JROMC; JRO as young man, AIP; young JRO and Frank, AIP. Page 4: Paul Dirac, NA; Max Born, NA; JRO with Kramers, AIP; JRO and others on a boat, AIP. Page 5: Serber, Fowler, JRO, and Alvarez, AIP; JRO in Caltech courtyard, Caltech; Serber at blackboard, Berkeley. Page 6: Lawrence with JRO leaning on car, AIP; JRO with horse, LANL; The authors at Perro Caliente, BS. Page 7: JRO with Fermi and Lawrence, Berkeley; Joe Weinberg, Lomanitz, Bohm, and Freidman, NA; Niels Bohr, AP. Page 8: Jean Tatlock at Vassar, Vassar; Jean Tatlock facing camera, Tatlock; Dr. Thomas Addis, NAS; FBI document, FBI. Page 9: Hoke Chevalier, Johan Hagemeyer Portrait Collection, Bancroft; George Eltenton, Voge; Col. Boris Pash, NA; Martin Sherwin with Chevalier, BS. Page 10: Kitty in jodphurs, BS; Kitty passport photo, BS; Kitty in lab, BS; JRO’s lab pass, BS. Page 11: Kitty smoking on couch, JROMC; Kitty’s Los Alamos pass, BS; Kitty smiling, JROMC. Page 12: Kitty and Peter, JROMC; JRO feeding baby Peter, JROMC. Page 13: JRO at Los Alamos party, LANL; Dorothy McGibbin, JRO, and Victor Weisskopf, LANL. Page 14: JRO et al. at a lecture, LANL; Hans Bethe portrait, NA; Frank Oppenheimer inspecting instrument, Berkeley; Groves with Stimson, NA. Page 15: JRO pouring coffee, AIP; JRO silhouetted, LANL; Trinity test explosion, LANL. Page 16: Panorama of Hiroshima, NA; Mother and child survivors in Nagasaki, Yamahata. Page 17: JRO et al. at machine, AIP-PTC; Physics Today cover, UPI; JRO, Conant, and Vannevar Bush in tuxedos, Harvard. Page 18: Frank Oppenheimer in lab, NA; Frank and cow, AP; Anne Wilson Marks in boat, Marks; Richard and Ruth Tolman, BS. Page 19: Cover of TIME, Getty; JRO et al. with airplane, LANL; JRO et al. at Harvard, Harvard. Page 20: Olden Manor, BS; Kitty, Toni, and Peter outside Olden Manor, Whitehead; JRO, Toni, and Peter in grass, Sonnenberg. Page 21: Kitty in greenhouse, Eisenstadt. Page 22: JRO and Neumann in Princeton, Richards; JRO teaching class, Eisenstadt. Page 23: JRO with Eleanor Roosevelt and others, Getty; JRO portrait, NA; JRO with Greg Breit, NA. Page 24: Herblock cartoon, Herblock; Lewis Strauss portrait, NA; JRO walking with cigarette, Getty. Page 25: Ward Evans, Northwestern; Gordon Gray, UNC; Henry DeWolf Smyth, NA; Eugene Zuchert, NA; Roger Robb, Getty. Page 26: Toni on horse, BS; Kitty and JRO, BS; Peter in coat and tie, JROMC. Page 27: Kitty sailing, BS; JRO sailing, BS; Oppenheimer family on beach, JROMC. Page 28: Neils Bohr and JRO on couch, Bohr; Kitty and JRO in Japan, JROMC. Page 29: Oppie smoking pipe, Steltzer; JRO and Jackie Kennedy, Getty; Frank Oppenheimer at Exploratorium, Exploratorium. Page 30: JRO with Kitty receiving Fermi prize, JROMC; JRO with LBJ, Berkeley; JRO shaking hands with Teller, Getty. Page 31: JRO at beach house, Bukowski; Toni on floor, BS; Toni, Inga, Kitty, and Doris on swing, Hiilivirta. Page 32: Portrait of JRO, Steltzer. Part Title I: JRO as young man, AIP-BAS. Part Title II: JRO at blackboard, JROMC. Part Title II: JRO and Groves at Trinity site, AP. Part Title IV: Einstein and JRO, Eisenstadt. Part Title V: JRO in profile, Karsh.

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[Keegan_2023-2] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Keegan, Rebecca (July 14, 2023). "'This Can't Be Safe. It's Got to Have Bite': Christopher Nolan and Cast Unleash Oppenheimer". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on July 20, 2023. Retrieved July 15, 2023.

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[NUM-4] Jump up to:^a ^b "Oppenheimer". The Numbers. Nash Information Services, LLC. Retrieved August 25, 2023.

[5] "Christopher Nolan Warns That Oppenheimer Is 'Kind of a Horror Movie'". June 21, 2023. Archived from the original on July 21, 2023. Retrieved August 3, 2023.

[6] Hirwani, Peony (August 8, 2023). "Oppenheimer becomes highest-grossing WWII film of all time". The Independent. Archived from the original on August 11, 2023. Retrieved August 10, 2023.

[7] "Top 2023 Movies at the Worldwide Box Office". The Numbers. Retrieved August 6, 2023.

[Murphy-8] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Kroll, Justin (October 8, 2021). "Cillian Murphy Confirmed to Star As J. Robert Oppenheimer In Christopher Nolan's Next Film At Universal, Film Will Bow in July 2023". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on October 8, 2021. Retrieved October 8, 2021.

[9] Kroll, Justin (October 20, 2021). "Emily Blunt In Talks To Join Christopher Nolan's Next Film Oppenheimer At Universal". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021. Retrieved October 20, 2021.

[DamonDowney-10] Jump up to:^a ^b Kroll, Justin (November 2, 2021). "Robert Downey Jr. And Matt Damon Latest Stars To Join Christopher Nolan's Oppenheimer". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021. Retrieved November 2, 2021.

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[136] D'Alessandro, Anthony (July 30, 2023). "'Barbie', 'Oppenheimer' & 'Haunted Mansion' Fuel Record Final Weekend In July With $217M+: How Long Does This Box Office Boom Last As Strikes Continue? – Update". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on July 29, 2023. Retrieved July 30, 2023.

[137] Rubin, Rebecca (July 30, 2023). "Box Office: 'Barbie' Scores Massive $93 Million, 'Oppenheimer' Adds Huge $46 Million in Second Weekends". Variety. Archived from the original on July 30, 2023. Retrieved July 30, 2023.

[138] D'Alessandro, Anthony (August 6, 2023). "2023 Domestic Box Office Surges Past $6 Billion This Weekend Due To 'Barbie', 'Oppenheimer', 'Turtles' & 'Meg 2' As Strikes Continue – Sunday Update". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on August 5, 2023. Retrieved August 6, 2023.

[139] McPherson, Chris (August 16, 2023). "'Oppenheimer' Poised to Become Highest-Grossing Movie in Domestic History To Never Top Box Office". Collider. Archived from the original on August 16, 2023. Retrieved August 17, 2023.

[140] Anderson, Jenna (August 16, 2023). "Oppenheimer Set to Break a Unique Box Office Record". Comicbook.com. Archived from the original on August 17, 2023. Retrieved August 17, 2023.

[DHInt1stBO-141] Tartaglione, Nancy (July 24, 2023). "'Barbie' An Even Bigger Knockout With $356M+ Global Bow, 'Oppenheimer' Increases Genius To $180M+ WW Launch – International Box Office Actuals Update". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on July 26, 2023. Retrieved July 24, 2023.

[DHInt2ndBO-142] Tartaglione, Nancy. "'Barbie' Pirouettes To Powerhouse $775M Global; 'Oppenheimer' A Phenom At $400M WW – International Box Office". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on July 31, 2023. Retrieved July 30, 2023.

[DHInt3rdBO-143] Tartaglione, Nancy (August 7, 2023). "'Barbie' & 'Oppenheimer' Reach Major Milestones, 'Meg 2' Chomps On $142M Global Debut; Disney Tops $4B WW For The Year So Far – International Box Office". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on August 12, 2023. Retrieved August 7, 2023.

[DHIntBO-144] Tartaglione, Nancy. "'Barbie' Sails Past $1.18B Global, 'Oppenheimer' Closing In On $650M, 'Meg 2' Tops $250M & 'Gran Turismo' Starts Early Overseas Engines – International Box Office". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on July 31, 2023. Retrieved August 13, 2023.

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[RTRound-146] "Oppenheimer First Reviews: Breathtaking, Ballsy, and One of the Best Biopics Ever Made". Rotten Tomatoes. Archived from the original on July 19, 2023. Retrieved July 20, 2023.

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[149] Roeper, Richard (July 19, 2023). "'Oppenheimer' a momentous achievement, at times pensive, at times explosive". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on July 20, 2023. Retrieved July 20, 2023.

[150] Jackson, Matthew (July 19, 2023). "Oppenheimer review: Christopher Nolan delivers his masterpiece". The A.V. Club. Archived from the original on July 20, 2023. Retrieved July 20, 2023.

[151] Jolin, Dan (July 19, 2023). "Oppenheimer Review". Empire. Archived from the original on July 21, 2023. Retrieved July 20, 2023.

[152] Suderman, Peter (July 21, 2023). "Christopher Nolan's 'Oppenheimer' is an intimate epic about the man who built the bomb". Reason.com. Archived from the original on July 25, 2023. Retrieved July 26, 2023.

[153] Zoller Seitz, Matt. "Oppenheimer movie review & film summary". RogerEbert.com. Archived from the original on July 20, 2023. Retrieved July 21, 2023.

[154] Travers, Peter (July 21, 2023). "Review: 'Oppenheimer' emerges as a monumental achievement on the march into screen history". ABC News. Archived from the original on July 21, 2023. Retrieved July 21, 2023.

[155] James, Caryn (July 19, 2023). "Oppenheimer review: A "magnificent" story of a tragic American genius". BBC Culture. Archived from the original on July 19, 2023. Retrieved July 21, 2023.

[156] Adlakha, Siddhant (July 19, 2023). "Oppenheimer Review". IGN. Archived from the original on July 28, 2023. Retrieved July 29, 2023.

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[158] "The 10 Best Drama Movies of the 2020s So Far, Ranked". Collider.

[159] Lowry, Brian (July 20, 2023). "'Oppenheimer' unleashes Christopher Nolan on the 'father' of the atomic bomb". CNN. Archived from the original on July 21, 2023. Retrieved July 21, 2023.

[160] Mason, Brett (July 28, 2023). "Americans had shelved the A-bomb until an Australian broke ranks". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on July 29, 2023. Retrieved July 30, 2023.

[161] White, Armond (July 21, 2023). "Oppenheimer's Revenge of the Geeks". National Review. Archived from the original on July 26, 2023. Retrieved July 26, 2023.

[nyt730-162] Cordova, Tina (July 30, 2023). "What 'Oppenheimer' Doesn't Tell You About the Trinity Test". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2023. Retrieved August 2, 2023.

[163] Strasser, Emily (August 9, 2023). "My grandfather helped build the bomb. 'Oppenheimer' sanitized its impacts". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on August 10, 2023. Retrieved August 9, 2023. Oppenheimer does not show a single image of Hiroshima or Nagasaki. Instead, it recreates the horror through Oppenheimer's imagination, when, during a congratulatory speech to the scientists of Los Alamos after the bombing of Hiroshima, the sound of the hysterically cheering crowd goes silent, the room flashes bright, and tatters of skin peel from the face of a white woman in the audience. The scene is powerful and unsettling, and, arguably, avoids sensationalizing the atrocity by not depicting the victims outright. But it also plays into a problematic pattern of whitewashing both the history and threat of nuclear war by appropriating the trauma of the Japanese victims to incite fear about possible future violence upon white bodies. An example of this pattern is a 1948 cover of John Hersey's Hiroshima, which featured a white couple fleeing a city beneath a glowing orange sky, even though the book itself brought the visceral human suffering to American readers through the eyes of six actual survivors of the bombing. The Oppenheimer film also neglects the impacts of fallout from nuclear testing, including from the Trinity test depicted in the film; the harm to the health of blue-collar production workers exposed to toxic and radiological materials; and the contamination of Oak Ridge and other production sites. Instead, the impressive pyrotechnics of the Trinity test, images of missile trails descending through clouds toward a doomed planet, and Earth-consuming fireballs interspersed with digital renderings of a quantum universe of swirling stars and atoms, elevate the bomb to the realm of the sublime—terrible, yes, but also awesome.

[Chang-164] Jump up to:^a ^b Chang, Justin (August 11, 2023). "'Oppenheimer' doesn't show Hiroshima or Nagasaki — by choice". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 23, 2023.

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[:3-171] Diaz-Maurin, François (July 28, 2023). "A Manhattan Project historian comments on 'Oppenheimer'". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on August 6, 2023. Retrieved August 19, 2023.

[independent-172] Chilton, Louis (July 28, 2023). "'A serious accusation': Did Oppenheimer's apple-poisoning incident really happen? It's complicated". The Independent. Retrieved August 26, 2023.

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[Turan-1] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Turan, Kenneth (July 11, 2023). "Christopher Nolan goes deep on 'Oppenheimer', his most 'extreme' film to date". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on July 15, 2023. Retrieved July 23, 2023.

[Powers-2] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Powers, Thomas. "An American Tragedy". The New York Review. Archived from the original on May 11, 2021. Retrieved July 16, 2023.

[Kifer-3] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Kifer, Andy (July 10, 2023). "Behind 'Oppenheimer,' a Prizewinning Biography 25 Years in the Making". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 11, 2023. Retrieved July 12, 2023.

[Dabscheck-4] Jump up to:^a ^b Dabscheck, Braham (2007). "Review of American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer". Australasian Journal of American Studies. 26 (1): 89–91. JSTOR 41054066.

[Amsden-5] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Amsden, David (July 18, 2023). "Oppenheimer's big screen odyssey: The man, the book and the film's 50-year journey". The Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on July 18, 2023.

[6] "Why Oppenheimer Was Called the 'American Prometheus'". MovieMaker. July 12, 2023. Retrieved July 16, 2023.

[7] Rollyson, Carl (July 17, 2023). "New Film Offers Chance To Grapple With Oppenheimer's Communist Ties, Beyond the Martyrology of McCarthyism". The New York Sun. Archived from the original on August 15, 2023.

[8] Maslin, Janet (April 21, 2005). "The Physics, Philosophy and, Literally, Dirty Laundry of Robert Oppenheimer". The New York Times. Retrieved July 12, 2023.

[9] Buchan, James (February 2, 2008). "The burden of the bomb" – via The Guardian.

[10] Settle, Frank A. (2006). "American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (review)". The Journal of Military History. 70 (1): 205–206. doi:10.1353/jmh.2006.0024. ISSN 1543-7795. Retrieved July 15, 2023.

[11] Rigden, John S. (November 2005). "American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer". Physics Today (review). 58 (11): 51–52. doi:10.1063/1.2155759.

[12] Julian, Thomas A (2006). "American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (review)". The Journal of Military History. 70 (1): 201–205. doi:10.1353/jmh.2006.0010. ISSN 1543-7795.

[13] "Reviews: 'Robert Oppenheimer' by Ray Monk and 'An Atomic Love Story' by Shirley Streshinsky and Patricia Klaus". Chicago Tribune. November 10, 2013. Retrieved July 23, 2023.

[14] "2005". National Book Critics Circle.

[15] "1956–2016". The Pol Roger Duff Cooper Prize. Retrieved July 23, 2023.

[16] Kifer, Andy. "The Real History Behind Christopher Nolan's 'Oppenheimer'". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved July 23, 2023.

[17] Kroll, Justin (October 8, 2021). "Cillian Murphy Confirmed to Star As J. Robert Oppenheimer In Christopher Nolan's Next Film At Universal, Film Will Bow in July 2023". Deadline. Retrieved July 28, 2022.

[18] McCluskey, Megan (July 21, 2023). "Here's How Close 'Oppenheimer' Sticks to J. Robert Oppenheimer's Life". Time. Retrieved July 23, 2023.

[19] Maslin, Janet (May 27, 2013). "Rough-Edged Atomic Pioneer". The New York Times. Retrieved July 23, 2023.

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Saturday, August 26, 2023

Oppenheimer (film) - Wikipedia, J. Robert Oppenheimer, American Prometheus

Plot

Cast

Production

Development

Writing

Casting

Filming

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Theatrical release

Classifications and censorship

India

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Box office

United States and Canada

Other territories

Critical response

Accolades

Influence

Historical accuracy

See also

References

External links

Summary[edit]

Production[edit]

Reception[edit]

Awards[edit]

Film adaptation[edit]

Other Oppenheimer biographies[edit]

References[edit]

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